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Rodenticide
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A wild rat
Warning sign in a Chicago neighborhood"Rat poison" redirects here. For the UNIX window manager, see ratpoison. For other methods of killing rodents, see "alternatives" below.
Rodenticides are a category of pest control chemicals intended to kill rodents.

Single feed baits are chemicals sufficiently dangerous that the first dose is sufficient to kill.

Rodents are difficult to kill with poisons because their feeding habits reflect their place as scavengers. They will eat a small bit of something and wait, and if they don't get sick, they continue. An effective rodenticide must be tasteless and odorless in lethal concentrations, and have a delayed effect.

Contents [hide]
1 Poisonous chemicals
1.1 Anticoagulants
1.2 Metal phosphides
1.3 Hypercalcemia
1.4 Other
1.5 Combinations
2 Alternatives
3 List of rat eradications
4 References
5 External links

[edit] Poisonous chemicals

[edit] Anticoagulants
Anticoagulants are defined as chronic (death occurs after 1 - 2 weeks post ingestion of the lethal dose, rarely sooner), single-dose (second generation) or multiple-dose (first generation) rodenticides, acting by effectively blocking of the vitamin K cycle, resulting in inability to produce essential blood-clotting factors (mainly coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII (proconvertin), IX (Christmas factor) and X (Stuart factor)).

In addition to this specific metabolic disruption, massive toxic doses of 4-hydroxycoumarin or 4-hydroxythiacoumarin and indandione anticoagulants cause damage to tiny blood vessels (capillaries), increasing their permeability, causing diffuse internal bleedings (haemorrhagias). These effects are gradual, developing over several days, but claims that they are painless are unfounded: in humans both warfarin poisoning and haemophilia commonly cause moderate to severe pain from bleeding into muscles and joints[1]. In the final phase of the intoxication, the exhausted rodent collapses in hypovolemic circulatory shock or severe anemia and dies calmly.

The main benefit of anticoagulants over other poisons is that the time taken for the poison to induce death means that the rats do not associate death with eating the poison.

First generation rodenticidal anticoagulants generally have shorter elimination half-lives,[2] require higher concentrations (usually between 0.005 and 0.1%) and consecutive intake over days in order to accumulate the lethal dose, and less toxic than second generation agents.
Second generation agents are far more toxic than first generation. They are generally applied in lower concentrations in baits (usually in order 0.001 - 0.005%), are lethal after a single ingestion of bait and are also effective against strains of rodents that became resistant to first generation anticoagulants; thus, the second generation anticoagulants are sometimes referred to as "superwarfarins". [3]
Class Examples
Coumarins/4-hydroxycoumarins First generation: warfarin, coumatetralyl
Second generation: difenacoum, brodifacoum, [4] and flocoumafen

1,3-indandiones diphacinone, chlorophacinone, [5] pindone
These are harder to group by generation. According to some sources, the indandiones are considered second generation.[6] However, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‎, examples of first generation agents include chlorophacinone and diphacinone.[4]

Other Difethialone is considered a second generation anticoagulant rodenticide .[7]
Indirect Sometimes, anticoagulant rodenticides are potentiated by an antibiotic or bacteriostatic agent, most commonly sulfaquinoxaline. The aim of this association is that the antibiotic suppresses intestinal symbiotic microflora, which are a source of vitamin K. Diminished production of vitamin K by the intestinal microflora contributes to the action of anticoagulants. Added vitamin D also has a synergistic effect with anticoagulants.

Vitamin K1 has been suggested, and successfully used, as antidote for pets or humans accidentally or intentionally (poison assaults on pets, suicidal attempts) exposed to anticoagulant poisons. Some of these poisons act by inhibiting liver functions and in advanced stages of poisoning, several blood-clotting factors are absent, and the volume of circulating blood is diminished, so that a blood transfusion (optionally with the clotting factors present) can save a person who has been poisoned, an advantage over some older poisons.

[edit] Metal phosphides
Metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death occurs commonly within 1-3 days after single bait ingestion). A bait consisting of food and a phosphide (usually zinc phosphide) is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are resistant to some of the anticoagulants, particularly for control of house and field mice; zinc phosphide baits are also cheaper than most second-generation anticoagulants, so that sometimes, in the case of large infestation by rodents, their population is initially reduced by copious amounts of zinc phosphide bait applied, and the rest of population that survived the initial fast-acting poison is then eradicated by prolonged feeding on anticoagulant bait. Inversely, the individual rodents, that survived anticoagulant bait poisoning (rest population) can be eradicated by pre-baiting them with nontoxic bait for a week or two (this is important to overcome bait shyness, and to get rodents used to feeding in specific areas by specific food, especially in eradicating rats) and subsequently applying poisoned bait of the same sort as used for pre-baiting until all consumption of the bait ceases (usually within 2-4 days). These methods of alterning rodenticides with different modes of action gives actual or almost 100% eradications of the rodent population in the area, if the acceptance/palatability of baits are good (i.e., rodents feed on it readily).

Zinc phosphide is typically added to rodent baits in amount of around 0.75-2%. The baits have strong, pungent garlic-like odor characteristic for phosphine liberated by hydrolysis. The odor attracts (or, at least, does not repulse) rodents, but has repulsive effect on other mammals. Birds (notably wild turkeys) are not sensitive to the smell, and will feed on the bait, and thus become collateral damage.

The tablets or pellets (usually aluminium, calcium or magnesium phosphide for fumigation/gassing) may also contain other chemicals which evolve ammonia which helps to reduce the potential for spontaneous ignition or explosion of the phosphine gas.

Phosphides do not accumulate in the tissues of poisoned animals, therefore the risk of secondary poisoning is low.

Before the advent of anticoagulants, phosphides were the favored kind of rat poison. During the World War II, they came in use in United States because of shortage of strychnine due to the Japanese occupation of the territories where strychnine-producing plants are grown (Strychnos nux-vomica, in south-east Asia). Phosphides are rather fast acting rat poisons, resulting in the rats dying usually in open areas instead of in the affected buildings.

Phosphides used as rodenticides are:

aluminium phosphide (fumigant only)
calcium phosphide (fumigant only)
magnesium phosphide (fumigant only)
zinc phosphide (in baits)

[edit] Hypercalcemia
Calciferols (vitamins D), cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) and ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) are used as rodenticides. They are toxic to rodents for the same reason they are beneficial to humans: they affect calcium and phosphate homeostasis in the body. Vitamins D are essential in minute quantities (few IUs per kilogram body weight daily, only a fraction of a milligram), and like most fat soluble vitamins, they are toxic in larger doses, causing hypervitaminosis. If the poisoning is severe enough (that is, if the dose of the toxin is high enough), it leads to death. In rodents that consume the rodenticidal bait, it causes hypercalcemia, raising the calcium level, mainly by increasing calcium absorption from food, mobilising bone-matrix-fixed calcium into ionised form (mainly monohydrogencarbonate calcium cation, partially bound to plasma proteins, [CaHCO3]+), which circulates dissolved in the blood plasma. After ingestion of a lethal dose, the free calcium levels are raised sufficiently that blood vessels, kidneys, the stomach wall and lungs are mineralised/calcificated (formation of calcificates, crystals of calcium salts/complexes in the tissues, damaging them), leading further to heart problems (myocardial tissue is sensitive to variations of free calcium levels, affecting both myocardial contractibility and excitation propagation between atrias and ventriculas), bleeding (due to capillary damage) and possibly kidney failure. It is considered to be single-dose, cumulative (depending on concentration used; the common 0.075% bait concentration is lethal to most rodents after a single intake of larger portions of the bait) or sub-chronic (death occurring usually within days to one week after ingestion of the bait). Applied concentrations are 0.075% cholecalciferol and 0.1% ergocalciferol when used alone. There is an important feature of calciferols toxicology, that they are synergistic with anticoagulant toxicants, that means, that mixtures of anticoagulants and calciferols in same bait are more toxic than a sum of toxicities of the anticoagulant and the calciferol in the bait, so that a massive hypercalcemic effect can be achieved by a substantially lower calciferol content in the bait, and vice-versa, a more pronounced anticoagulant/hemorrhagic effects are observed if the calciferol is present. This synergism is mostly used in calciferol low concetration baits, because effective concentrations of calciferols are more expensive than effective concentrations of the most anticoagulants. The first application of a calciferol in rodenticidal bait was in the Sorex product Sorexa D (with a different formula than today's Sorexa D), back in early 1970s, which contained 0.025% warfarin and 0.1% ergocalciferol. Today, Sorexa CD contains a 0.0025% difenacoum and 0.075% cholecalciferol combination. Numerous other brand products containing either 0.075-0.1% calciferols (e.g. Quintox) alone or alongside an anticoagulant are marketed.

Although this rodenticide was introduced with claims that it was less toxic to nontarget species than to rodents, clinical experience has shown that rodenticides containing cholecalciferol are a significant health threat to dogs and cats. Cholecalciferol produces hypercalcemia, which results in systemic calcification of soft tissue, leading to renal failure, cardiac abnormalities, hypertension, CNS depression and GI upset.

Signs generally develop within 18-36 hours of ingestion and can include depression, anorexia, polyuria and polydipsia. As serum calcium concentrations increase, clinical signs become more severe, manifesting often via anorexia, vomiting and constipation in the pet. Inability of the kidneys to concentrate urine is a direct result of hypercalcemia. As hypercalcemia persists, mineralization of the kidneys results in progressive renal insufficiency.

Additional anticoagulant renders the bait more toxic to pets as well as human. Upon single ingestion, solely calciferol-based baits are considered generally safer to birds than second generation anticoagulants or acute toxicants. A specific antidote for calciferol intoxication is calcitonin, a hormone that lowers the blood levels of calcium. The therapy with commercially available calcitonin preparations is, however, expensive.

[edit] Other

Civilian Public Service worker distributes rat poison for typhus control in Gulfport Mississippi, ca. 1945.Other chemical poisons include:

ANTU (α-naphthylthiourea; specific against Brown rat, Rattus norvegicus)
Arsenic
Barium (a toxic metal) compound
Barium carbonate
Bromethalin (which affects the nervous system, no antidote)
Chloralose (narcotic acting condensation product of chloral and glucose)
Crimidine (2-chloro-N, N,6-trimethylpyrimidin-4-amine; a synthetic convulsant poison, antivitamin B6)
1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol ("Gliftor" in the former USSR)
Endrin (organochlorine cyclodiene insecticide, used in the past for extermination of voles in fields during winter by aircraft spraying)
Fluoroacetamide ("1081")
Phosacetim (a delayed-action organophosphorous rodenticide)
White phosphorus
Pyrinuron (an urea derivative)
Scilliroside
Sodium fluoroacetate ("1080")
Strychnine
Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine ("tetramine")
Thallium (a toxic heavy metal) compounds
Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide absorbed in an inert carrier)

[edit] Combinations
In some countries, fixed three-component rodenticides, i.e. anticoagulant + antibiotic + vitamin D, are used. Associations of a second-generation anticoagulant with an antibiotic and/or vitamin D are considered to be effective even against most resistant strains of rodents, though some second generation anticoagulants (namely brodifacoum and difethialone), in bait concentrations of 0.0025 - 0.005% are so toxic that resistance is unknown, and even rodents resistant to other rodenticides are reliably exterminated by application of these most toxic anticoagulants.

[edit] Alternatives
Anhydrous powdered maize/corn cobs, containing high fractions (over 40%) of α-cellulose, which is incorporated into a solid, gastric-resistant matrix, that is dissolved in the gut. The α-cellulose anhydrous powder released in the gut of the rodent disrupts water and electrolyte balance and so kills the rodent. This material is commonly formulated with taste and flavour additives to increase its palatability, and is compressed into granulate of appropriate size (granules of bigger size for rats, smaller granules for mice). This material is completely non-toxic, leaves no harmful residues, is environmentally friendly and accidental ingestion of it by pets or children is simply treated by giving laxatives, plenty of water and electrolytes. Dead rodents killed by this mean pose no risk of secondary poisoning. However, this method is said to be extremely painful for the rodents. Therefore this method may be illegal to be applied according to certain national legislation on animal welfare, e.g. in Germany.

[edit] List of rat eradications
Campbell Island, New Zealand, largest ever.
Rat Island (Alaska)
Mokapu Island, Molokai
Falkland Islands
San Jorge Islands, Mexico
Canna, Scotland

[edit] References
^ Choinière M, Melzack R (December 1987). "Acute and chronic pain in hemophilia". Pain 31 (3): 317–31. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(87)90161-8. PMID 3501097.
^ Vandenbroucke V, Bousquet-Melou A, De Backer P, Croubels S (October 2008). "Pharmacokinetics of eight anticoagulant rodenticides in mice after single **** administration". J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 31 (5): 437–45. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.2008.00979.x. PMID 19000263. ubmed&issn=0140-7783&date=2008&volume=31&issue=5&spage=437" target="_blank">http://www3.interscience.wiley...31&issue=5&spage=437.
^ Kotsaftis P, Girtovitis F, Boutou A, Ntaios G, Makris PE (September 2007). "Haemarthrosis after superwarfarin poisoning". Eur. J. Haematol. 79 (3): 255–7. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2007.00904.x. PMID 17655702. ubmed&issn=0902-4441&date=2007&volume=79&issue=3&spage=255" target="_blank">http://www3.interscience.wiley...79&issue=3&spage=255.
^ a b "Final Risk Mitigation Decision for Ten Rodenticides | Pesticides | US EPA". http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/...inalriskdecision.htm. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
^ "LONG ACTING ANTICOAGULANT RODENTICIDES". http://www.addl.purdue.edu/new...rs/1995/rodent.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
^ "Anticoagulant Rodenticide Toxicosis in the Dog and Cat". http://www.vet.uga.edu/VPP/clerk/Harrell/index.php. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
^ Saravanan K, Kanakasabai R, Thiyagesan K (June 2003). "Field evaluation of difethialone, a new second generation anticoagulant rodenticide in the rice fields". Indian J. Exp. Biol. 41 (6): 655–8. PMID 15266918.

[edit] External links
National Pesticide Information Center
Fact Sheet on EPA's Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides
EPA Rodenticide Cluster Reregistration Eligibility Decision Fact Sheet
Wildcare Bay Area - Rodenticide Use Information
[hide]v • d • ePest control: rodenticides

Anticoagulants/
vitamin K antagonists coumarins/4-Hydroxycoumarins: 1st generation (Warfarin, Coumatetralyl) • 2nd generation (Brodifacoum, Difenacoum, Flocoumafen)
1,3-Indandiones: Chlorophacinone • Pindone • Diphacinone

other: Difethialone

Convulsants Crimidine • Phenylsilatrane • Strychnine • Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine

Calciferols Cholecalciferol • Ergocalciferol

Inorganic compounds Aluminium phosphide • Arsenic • Barium carbonate • Calcium phosphide • Cyanide • Thallium • Zinc phosphide

Organochlorine Chloralose • Endrin

Organophosphorus Phosacetim

Metabolic poisons Bromethalin • Fluoroacetamide • 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (Gliftor) • Sodium fluoroacetate

Other α-Naphthylthiourea • Norbormide • Pyrinuron • Scilliroside

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Poison
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Poison (disambiguation).

EU standard toxic symbol, as defined by Directive 67/548/EEC. skull and crossbones became a standard symbol for poison.Treatment for
Toxicology and poison
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In the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms,[1] usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism. Legally and in hazardous chemical labelling, poisons are especially toxic substances; less toxic substances are labelled "harmful", "irritant", or not labelled at all.

In medicine (particularly veterinary) and in zoology, a poison is often distinguished from a toxin and a venom. Toxins are poisons produced via some biological function in nature, and venoms are usually defined as biologic toxins that are injected by a bite or sting to cause their effect, while other poisons are generally defined as substances which are absorbed through epithelial linings such as the skin or gut.

Contents [hide]
1 Terminology
2 Uses of poison
3 Biological poisoning
4 Poisoning management
4.1 Initial management
4.2 Decontamination
4.3 Antidotes
4.4 Enhanced excretion
4.5 Further treatment
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

[edit] Terminology
Some poisons are also toxins, usually referring to naturally produced substances, such as the bacterial proteins that cause tetanus and botulism. A distinction between the two terms is not always observed, even among scientists.

Animal toxins that are delivered subcutaneously (e.g. by sting or bite) are also called venom. In normal usage, a poisonous organism is one that is harmful to consume, but a venomous organism uses poison to defend itself while still alive. A single organism can be both venomous and poisonous.

The derivative forms "toxic" and "poisonous" are synonymous.

Within chemistry and physics, a poison is a substance that obstructs or inhibits a reaction, for example by binding to a catalyst. For an example, see nuclear poison.

Paracelsus, the father of toxicology, once wrote: "Everything is poison, there is poison in everything. Only the dose makes a thing not a poison." The phrase "poison" is often used colloquially to describe any harmful substance, particularly corrosive substances, carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens and harmful pollutants, and to exaggerate the dangers of chemicals. The legal definition of "poison" is stricter. A medical condition of poisoning can also be caused by substances that are not legally required to carry the label "poison".

[edit] Uses of poison
See also: History of poison

"Poisoning of Queen Bona" by Jan Matejko.Throughout human history, intentional application of poison has been used as a method of assassination, murder, suicide and execution.[2][3] As a method of execution, poison has been ingested, as the ancient Athenians did (see Socrates), inhaled, as with carbon monoxide or hydrogen cyanide (see gas chamber), or injected (see lethal injection). Many languages describe lethal injection with their corresponding words for "poison shot". Poison's lethal effect can be combined with its allegedly magical powers; an example is the Chinese gu poison. Poison was also employed in gunpowder warfare. For example, the 14th century Chinese text of the Huo Long Jing written by Jiao Yu outlined the use of a poisonous gunpowder mixture to fill cast iron grenade bombs.[4]

On the whole, however, poisons are usually not used for their toxicity, but may be used for their other properties. The property of toxicity itself has limited non-lethal applications: mainly for controlling pests and weeds, cleaning and maintenance, and for preserving building materials and food stuffs. Where possible, specific agents which are less poisonous to humans have come to be preferred, but exceptions such as phosphine continue in use.

Most poisonous materials still in use are used for their chemical or physical properties other than being poisonous. Many over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin and Tylenol, are quite toxic if ingested in sufficiently large quantities. Alcohol is also toxic if too much is ingested in a short enough time. In laboratory environments, where specific chemical properties are often required, the most effective, easiest, safest, or cheapest option for use in a chemical synthesis may be a poisonous material. If a toxic substance possesses these properties more exactly than a non-toxic one, the toxic substance is superior. Chromic acid is an example of such a "simple to use" reagent, but reactivity, in particular, is important. Hydrogen fluoride (HF), for example, is both poisonous and extremely corrosive. However, it has a high affinity (free energy) for silicon, which is exploited by using HF to etch glass or to manufacture silicon semiconductor chips.

On the other hand, certain medical treatments actually make deliberate use of the toxicity of certain substances. Antibiotics (originally harvested from organisms but now artificially produced in laboratories) are highly disruptive to the biochemistry of micro-organisms while having almost no direct effect upon humans. Similarly, the drugs used in chemotherapy are quite toxic; the reason chemotheraputic drugs have far more severe side effects than antibiotics is that their toxicity is not as narrowly tailored. Their benefit arises from the fact that they are—hopefully—more toxic to cancerous cells than normal ones. Such substances could be classified as poisons under the categories defined above, as they are generally artificial in nature, but are not generally discussed as such.

[edit] Biological poisoning
Acute poisoning is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a short period of time. Symptoms develop in close relation to the exposure. Absorption of a poison is necessary for systemic poisoning. In contrast, substances that destroy tissue but do not absorb, such as lye, are classified as corrosives rather than poisons.

Chronic poisoning is long-term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur immediately or after each exposure. The patient gradually becomes ill, or becomes ill after a long latent period. Chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons that bioaccumulate such as mercury and lead.

Contact or absorption of poisons can cause rapid death or impairment. Agents that act on the nervous system can paralyze in seconds or less, and include both biologically derived neurotoxins and so-called nerve gases, which may be synthesized for warfare or industry.

Inhaled or ingested cyanide, used as a method of execution in gas chambers, almost instantly starves the body of energy by inhibiting the enzymes in mitochondria that make ATP. Intravenous injection of an unnaturally high concentration of potassium chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the United States, quickly stops the heart by eliminating the cell potential necessary for muscle contraction.

Most biocides, including pesticides, are created to act as poisons to target organisms, although acute or less observable chronic poisoning can also occur in non-target organism, including the humans who apply the biocides and other beneficial organisms. For example, the herbicide 2,4-D imitates the action of a plant hormone, to the effect that the lethal toxicity is specific to plants. Indeed, 2,4-D is not a poison, but classified as "harmful" (EU).

Many substances regarded as poisons are toxic only indirectly, by toxication. An example is "wood alcohol" or methanol, which is not poisonous itself, but is chemically converted to toxic formaldehyde and formic acid in the liver. Many drug molecules are made toxic in the liver, and the genetic variability of certain liver enzymes makes the toxicity of many compounds differ between individuals.

The study of the symptoms, mechanisms, treatment and diagnosis of biological poisoning is known as toxicology.

Exposure to radioactive substances can produce radiation poisoning, an unrelated phenomenon.

[edit] Poisoning management
Poison Control Centers (reachable at 1-800-222-1222 in the US worldwide) provide immediate, free, and expert treatment advice and assistance over the telephone in case of suspected exposure to poisons or toxic substances.

[edit] Initial management
Initial management for all poisonings includes ensuring adequate cardiopulmonary function and providing treatment for any symptoms such as seizures, shock, and pain.

[edit] Decontamination
If the toxin was recently ingested, absorption of the substance may be able to be decreased through gastric decontamination. This may be achieved using activated charcoal, gastric lavage, whole bowel irrigation, or nasogastric aspiration. Routine use of emetics (syrup of Ipecac), cathartics or laxatives are no longer recommended.
Activated charcoal is the treatment of choice to prevent absorption of the poison. It is usually administered when the patient is in the emergency room or by a trained emergency healthcare provider such as a Paramedic or EMT. However, charcoal is ineffective against metals, Na, K, alcohols, glycols, acids, and alkalis.
Whole bowel irrigation cleanses the bowel, this is achieved by giving the patient large amounts of a polyethylene glycol solution. The osmotically balanced polyethylene glycol solution is not absorbed into the body, having the effect of flushing out the entire gastrointestinal tract. Its major uses are following ingestion of sustained release drugs, toxins that are not absorbed by activated charcoal (i.e. lithium, iron), and for the removal of ingested packets of drugs (body packing/smuggling).[5]
Gastric lavage, commonly known as a stomach pump, is the insertion of a tube into the stomach, followed by administration of water or saline down the tube. The liquid is then removed along with the contents of the stomach. Lavage has been used for many years as a common treatment for poisoned patients. However, a recent review of the procedure in poisonings suggests no benefit.[6] It is still sometimes used if it can be performed within 1 h of ingestion and the exposure is potentially life threatening.
Nasogastric aspiration involves the placement of a tube via the nose down into the stomach, the stomach contents are then removed via suction. This procedure is mainly used for liquid ingestions where activated charcoal is ineffective, e.g. ethylene glycol.
Emesis (i.e. induced by ipecac) is no longer recommended in poisoning situations.[7]
Cathartics were postulated to decrease absorption by increasing the expulsion of the poison from the gastrointestinal tract. There are two types of cathartics used in poisoned patients; saline cathartics (sodium sulfate, magnesium citrate, magnesium sulfate) and saccharide cathartics (sorbitol). They do not appear to improve patient outcome and are no longer recommended.[8]

[edit] Antidotes
Some poisons have specific antidotes:

Poison/Drug Antidote
paracetamol (acetaminophen) N-acetylcysteine
vitamin K anticoagulants, e.g. warfarin vitamin K
opioids naloxone
iron (and other heavy metals) desferrioxamine, Deferasirox or Deferiprone
benzodiazepines flumazenil
ethylene glycol ethanol, fomepizole or Thiamine
methanol ethanol or fomepizole
cyanide amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite & sodium thiosulfate
Organophosphates Atropine & Pralidoxime
Magnesium Calcium Gluconate
Calcium Channel Blockers (Verapamil, Diltiazem) Calcium Gluconate
Beta-Blockers (Propranolol, Sotalol) Calcium Gluconate and/or Glucagon
Isoniazid Pyridoxine
Atropine Physostigmine
Thallium Prussian Blue

[edit] Enhanced excretion
In some situations elimination of the poison can be enhanced using diuresis, hemodialysis, hemoperfusion, hyperbaric medicine, peritoneal dialysis, or exchange transfusion.

[edit] Further treatment
In the majority of poisonings the mainstay of management is providing supportive care for the patient, i.e. treating the symptoms rather than the poison.

[edit] See also
Antidote
Biosecurity
Food taster
LD50
Lethal injection
List of extremely hazardous substances
List of fictional toxins
List of poisonings
List of poisonous plants
Toxicity
Toxicology
Toxics use reduction
Venom
Mr. Yuk

[edit] References
^ poison at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
^ Kautilya suggests employing means such as seduction, secret use of weapons, poison etc. S.D. Chamola, Kautilya Arthshastra and the Science of Management: Relevance for the Contemporary Society, p. 40. ISBN 8178711265.
^ Kautilya urged detailed precautions against assassination—tasters for food, elaborate ways to detect poison. "Moderate Machiavelli? Contrasting The Prince with the Arthashastra of Kautilya". Critical Horizons, vol. 3, no. 2 (September 2002). Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1440-9917 (Print) 1568-5160 (Online). DOI: 10.1163/156851602760586671.
^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 180.
^ "Position paper: whole bowel irrigation". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (6): 843–54. 2004. doi:10.1081/CLT-200035932. PMID 15533024.
^ Vale JA, Kulig K; American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. (2004). "Position paper: gastric lavage". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (7): 933–43. doi:10.1081/CLT-200045006. PMID 15641639.
^ American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres Clinical Toxicologists (2004). "Position paper: Ipecac syrup". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (2): 133–43. doi:10.1081/CLT-120037421. PMID 15214617.
^ Toxicology, American Academy of Clinical (2004). "Position paper: cathartics". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (3): 243–53. doi:10.1081/CLT-120039801. PMID 15362590.

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Crocodile
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Crocodile (disambiguation).
Crocodile
Fossil range: Late Cretaceous - Recent

Nile Crocodile
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Reptilia

Order: Crocodilia

Family: Crocodylidae
Cuvier, 1807

Genera
Crocodylus
Osteolaemus
See full taxonomy.

A crocodile is any species belonging to the family Crocodylidae (sometimes classified instead as the subfamily Crocodylinae). The term can also be used more loosely to include all members of the order Crocodilia: i.e. the true crocodiles, the alligators and caimans (family Alligatoridae) and the gharials (family Gavialidae), or even the Crocodylomorpha which includes prehistoric crocodile relatives and ancestors. Crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. Crocodiles tend to congregate in freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, wetlands and sometimes in brackish water. They feed mostly on vertebrates like fish, reptiles, and mammals, sometimes on invertebrates like mollusks and crustaceans, depending on species. They are an ancient lineage, and are believed to have changed little since the time of the dinosaurs. They are believed to be 200 million years old whereas dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago; crocodiles survived great extinction events.[1]

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Description
3 Biology and behaviour
3.1 Size
3.2 Age
4 Taxonomy of the Crocodylidae
5 Crocodiles and Humans
5.1 Danger to humans
5.2 Crocodile products
6 References
7 Further reading
8 See also
9 External links

[edit] Etymology
Look up crocodile in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The word crocodile comes from the Ancient Greek κροκόδιλος (crocodilos), "lizard," used in the phrase ho crocodilos ho potamós, "the lizard of the [Nile] river."

There are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form κροκόδειλος (crocodeilos)[2] found cited in many English reference works.[3] In the Koine Greek of Roman times, crocodilos and crocodeilos would have been pronounced identically, and either or both may be the source of the Latinized form crocodīlus used by the ancient Romans.

Crocodilos/crocodeilos itself is described in reference sources as a corruption of crocè ("pebbly"), and drilos/dreilos supposedly meaning "worm" although attested only as "(man with circumcized) *****".[4] It is unclear how well supported this analysis is. The meaning of crocè is explained as describing the skin texture of lizards (or crocodiles) in most sources, but is alternately claimed to refer to a supposed habit of (lizards or crocodiles) basking on pebbly ground.[5]

The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin.[4] It is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternate Greco-Latin forms (late Greek corcodrillos and corcodrillion are attested).

A (further) corrupted form cocodrille is found in Old French and was borrowed into Middle English as cocodril(le). The Modern English form crocodile was adapted directly from the Classical Latin crocodīlus in the 16th Century, replacing the earlier form.

The use of -y- in the scientific name Crocodylus (and forms derived from it) is a corruption introduced by Laurenti (1768).

[edit] Description
Crocodiles are similar to alligators and caiman; for their common biology and differences between them, see Crocodilia.

Crocodiles, like dinosaurs, have the abdominal ribs modified into gastralia.Crocodiles are among the more biologically complex reptiles despite their prehistoric look. Unlike other reptiles, they incorporate muscles used for aquatic locomotion into respiration (e.g. M. diaphragmaticus), giving them the functional equivalent of a diaphragm;[6] a cerebral cortex; and a four-chambered heart. Their external morphology on the other hand is a sign of their aquatic and predatory lifestyle. A crocodile’s physical traits allow it to be a successful predator. They have a streamlined body that enables them to swim swiftly. Crocodiles also tuck their feet to their sides while swimming, which makes them faster by decreasing water resistance. They have webbed feet which, although not used to propel the animal through the water, allow it to make fast turns and sudden moves in the water or initiate swimming. Webbed feet are an advantage in shallower water where the animals sometimes move around by walking.

Crocodiles have a palatal flap, a rigid tissue at the back of the mouth that blocks the entry of water. The palate has a special path from the nostril to the glottis that bypasses the mouth. The nostrils are closed during submergence. Like other archosaurs, crocodilians are diapsid, although their post-temporal fenestrae are reduced. The walls of the braincase are bony but they lack supratemporal and postfrontal bones.[1] Their tongues are not free but held in place by a membrane which limits movement; as a result, crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.[7]

Crocodilian scales have pores that are believed to be sensory, analogous to the lateral line in fishes. They are particularly seen on their upper and lower jaws. Another possibility is that they are secretory, as they produce an oily substance that appears to flush mud off.[1]

Crocodiles are very fast over short distances, even out of water. Since crocodiles feed by grabbing and holding onto their prey, they have evolved sharp teeth for tearing and holding onto flesh, and powerful muscles that close the jaws and hold them shut. These jaws can bite down with immense force, by far the strongest bite of any animal. The crocodile's bite force is more than 5,000 pounds per square inch (340 atm),[8] compared to just 335 pounds per square inch (22.8 atm) for a rottweiler, 400 pounds per square inch (27 atm) for a large great white shark, or 800 pounds per square inch (54 atm) to 1,000 pounds per square inch (68 atm) for a hyena. The jaws are opened, however, by a very weak set of muscles. Crocodiles can thus be subdued for study or transport by taping their jaws or holding their jaws shut with large rubber bands cut from automobile inner tubes. All crocodiles have sharp and powerful claws. They have limited lateral (side-to-side) movement in their neck.

[edit] Biology and behaviour
Crocodiles are ambush hunters, waiting for fish or land animals to come close, then rushing out to attack. As cold-blooded predators, they are lethargic, therefore survive long periods without food, and rarely need to actively go hunting. Despite their slow appearance, crocodiles are top predators in their environment, and various species have been observed attacking and killing sharks.[9] A famous exception is the Egyptian Plover which is said to enjoy a symbiotic relationship with the crocodile. According to unauthenticated reports, the plover feeds on parasites that infest the crocodile's mouth and the reptile will open its jaws and allow the bird to enter to clean out the mouth.[10]

Many large crocodilians swallow stones (called gastroliths or stomach stones) and they are believed to be of use in acting as ballast to balance their body. Other suggestions have been made that they may have a function similar to that of grit in birds, which is in crushing food.[1]

Salt glands are present in the tongues of most crocodylids and they have a pore opening on the surface of the tongue. They appear to be similar to those in marine turtles, however these seem to be absent in Alligatoridae.[1]

Crocodilians can produce sounds during distress and in aggressive displays. They can also hear well and the tympanic membranes are concealed by flat flaps that may be raised or lowered by muscles.[1]

Crocodile farm in MexicoCrocodiles eat fish, birds, mammals and occasionally smaller crocodiles.

Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, but they also are farmed commercially. Their hide is tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags, whilst crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. The most commonly farmed species are the Sal****er and Nile crocodiles, while a hybrid of the Sal****er and the rare Siamese Crocodile is also bred in Asian farms. Farming has resulted in an increase in the Sal****er crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve crocodile habitat.

Crocodiles are more closely related to birds and dinosaurs than to most animals classified as reptiles, the three being included in the group Archosauria ('ruling reptiles'). See Crocodilia for more information.

Crocodile embryos do not have *** chromosomes, and unlike humans *** is not determined genetically. *** is determined by temperature, with males produced at around 31.6 °C, and females produced at slightly lower and higher temperatures. The average incubation period is around 80 days, and also is dependent upon temperature.[11]

It has been observed that crocodiles may possess a form of homing instinct. Three rogue sal****er crocodiles were relocated 400 kilometres by helicopter in northern Australia but had returned to their original locations within three weeks, based on data obtained from tracking devices attached to the reptiles.[12]

The land speed record for a crocodile is 17 km/h (11 mph) measured in a galloping Australian freshwater crocodile. [13] Maximum speed varies from species to species. Certain types of crocodiles can indeed gallop, including Cuban crocodiles, New Guinea crocodiles, African dwarf crocodiles, and even small Nile crocodiles. For most species, the fastest they can move is a kind of "belly run", where the body moves in a snake-like fashion, limbs splayed out to either side paddling away frantically while the tail whips to and fro. Crocodiles can reach speeds of 10 or 11 km/h (around 7 mph) when they "belly run", and often faster if they're slipping down muddy tidal riverbanks. Another form of locomotion is the "high walk" where the body is raised clear off the ground.

Siamese Crocodile sleeping with its mouth open to pantCrocodiles do not have sweat glands, so they release heat through their mouths. Consequently, they often sleep with their mouth open and may even pant like a dog.[14]

[edit] Size

Large Sal****er Crocodile in captivity in AustraliaSize greatly varies between species, from the dwarf crocodile to the sal****er crocodile. Species of Palaeosuchus and Osteolaemus grow to an adult size of just 1 metre (3.3 ft) to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft). Larger species can reach over 4.85 metres (15.9 ft) long and weigh well over 1,200 kilograms (2,600 lb). Crocodilians show pronounced sexual dimorphism with males growing much larger and more rapidly than females.[1] Despite their large adult size, crocodiles start their life at around 20 centimetres (7.9 in) long. The largest species of crocodile is the sal****er crocodile, found in northern Australia, throughout south-east Asia, and in the surrounding waters.

The largest recorded crocodile is a giant sal****er crocodile measured at 8.6 metres (28 ft) and 1,352 kilograms (2,980 lb) shot in Australia, Queensland in 1957. A replica of this crocodile has been made as a tourist attraction.[9] The largest living crocodile known is a 7.1 metres (23 ft) long sal****er crocodile, in Orissa, India. It lives in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary and in June 2006, was entered in the Guinness Book of World Records.[15]

Two larger certifiable records are both of 6.2 metres (20 ft) crocodiles. The first crocodile was shot in the Mary River in the Northern Territory of Australia in 1974 by poachers and measured by wildlife rangers.[citation needed] The second crocodile was killed in 1983 in the Fly River, Papua New Guinea. In the case of the second crocodile it was actually the skin that was measured by zoologist Jerome Montague, and as skins are known to underestimate the size of the actual animal, it is possible this crocodile was at least another 10 cm longer.[citation needed]

Sweetheart, a large sal****er crocodile that attacked boats
This file is a candidate for speedy deletion. It may be deleted after Friday, 14 August 2009.The largest crocodile ever held in captivity is an Estuarine–Siamese hybrid named Yai (Thai: ใหญ่, meaning big) (born 10 June 1972) at the famous Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Thailand. This animal measures 6 metres (20 ft) in length and weighs 1,114.27 kilograms (2,456.5 lb).[citation needed]

The largest captive crocodile alive in the US is located in South Carolina. In June 2002, Alligator Adventure introduced Utan. At 20 feet (6.1 m) long and weighing in at more than a ton, "Utan", the largest crocodile to ever be exhibited in the United States, made his new home in Myrtle Beach.[citation needed]

Another huge captive specimen was a sal****er crocodile named Gomek. Gomek was captured by George Craig in Papua New Guinea and sold to St. Augustine Alligator Farm in Florida, USA. Gomek died of heart disease in February 1997. When he died, he was 5.5 metres (18 ft) long—as confirmed by St. Augustine Alligator Farm[citation needed]—and probably between 70 and 80 years old.

Yet another enormous crocodile, named Gustave by the Africans who have seen him, is responsible for over 300 human deaths, and allegedly ate an entire adult hippopotamus. He also stars in a film titled Primeval. The crocodile's length is said to be anywhere between 20 feet (6.1 m) to 30 feet (9.1 m) long. He lives along the Ruzizi River in Africa.[citation needed]

Wildlife experts, however, argue that the largest crocodile so far found in the Bhitarkanika was almost 25 feet (7.6 m) long, which could be traced from the skull preserved by the Kanika Royal Family. The crocodile was shot near Dhamara in 1926 and later its skull was preserved by the then Kanika King. Crocodile experts estimate the animal at about 7.62 metres (25.0 ft) long, as the size of the skull was measured one seventh of the total length of the body.[citation needed]

A statue of Saint Theodore of Amasea treading on a crocodile (Venice, Italy)
[edit] Age
There is no reliable way of measuring crocodile age, although several techniques are used to derive a reasonable guess. The most common method is to measure lamellar growth rings in bones and teeth—each ring corresponds to a change in growth rate which typically occurs once a year between dry and wet seasons.[16] Bearing these inaccuracies in mind, the oldest crocodilians appear to be the largest species. C. porosus is estimated to live around 70 years on average, and there is limited evidence that some individuals may exceed 100 years. One of the oldest crocodiles recorded died in a zoo in Russia. A male freshwater crocodile at the Australia Zoo is estimated to be 130 years old. He was rescued from the wild by Bob Irwin and Steve Irwin after being shot twice by hunters. As a result of the shootings, this crocodile (known affectionately as "Mr. Freshy") has lost his right eye.[17]

[edit] Taxonomy of the Crocodylidae

Crocodile farming in Australia
A bask of crocodiles
American Crocodile at La Manzanilla, Jalisco, Mexico
Skull of the extinct Voay robustusMost species are grouped into the genus Crocodylus. The other extant genus, Osteolaemus, is monotypic (as is Mecistops, if recognized).

Family Crocodylidae
Subfamily †Mekosuchinae (extinct)
Subfamily Crocodylinae
Genus Crocodylus
Crocodylus acutus, American Crocodile
Crocodylus cataphractus, Slender-snouted Crocodile (studies in DNA and morphology suggest that this species may be more basal than Crocodylus, and therefore belongs in its own genus, Mecistops)[18]
Crocodylus intermedius, Orinoco Crocodile
Crocodylus johnsoni, Freshwater Crocodile
Crocodylus mindorensis, Philippine Crocodile
Crocodylus moreletii, Morelet's Crocodile or Mexican Crocodile
Crocodylus niloticus, Nile Crocodile or African Crocodile (the subspecies found in Madagascar is sometimes called the Black Crocodile)
Crocodylus novaeguineae, New Guinea Crocodile
Crocodylus palustris, Mugger Crocodile, Marsh Crocodile, or Indian Crocodile
Crocodylus porosus, Sal****er Crocodile or Estuarine Crocodile
Crocodylus rhombifer, Cuban Crocodile
Crocodylus siamensis, Siamese Crocodile
Genus Osteolaemus
Osteolaemus tetraspis, Dwarf Crocodile (there has been controversy whether or not this is actually two species; current thinking is that there is one species with 2 subspecies: O. tetraspis tetraspis & O. t. osborni)
Genus †Asiatosuchus
Genus †Euthecodon
Genus †Rimasuchus (formerly Crocodylus lloydi)
Genus †Voay Brochu, 2007 (formerly Crocodylus robustus)
Some of the extinct relatives of true crocodiles, members of the larger group Crocodylomorpha, were herbivorous.

[edit] Crocodiles and Humans

[edit] Danger to humans
This section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (June 2008)

Main article: Crocodile attacks
The larger species of crocodiles are very dangerous to humans. The main danger that crocodiles pose is not their ability to run after a person but their ability to strike before the person can react. The Sal****er and Nile Crocodiles are the most dangerous, killing hundreds of people each year in parts of south-east Asia and Africa. Mugger crocodiles and possibly the endangered Black Caiman are also very dangerous to humans. American alligators are less aggressive and rarely assault humans without provocation.

The most deaths in a single crocodile attack incident may have occurred during the Battle of Ramree Island, on February 19, 1945, in Burma. Nine hundred soldiers of an Imperial Japanese Army unit, in an attempt to retreat from the Royal Navy and rejoin a larger battalion of the Japanese infantry, crossed through 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) of mangrove swamps which contained Sal****er Crocodiles. Twenty Japanese soldiers were captured alive by the British, and almost five hundred are known to have escaped Ramree. Many of the remainder may have been eaten by the crocodiles, although gunfire from the British troops was undoubtedly a contributory factor.[citation needed].

[edit] Crocodile products
Main article: Crocodile farm

Crocodile leather wallets from Bangkok Crocodile FarmCrocodile leather can be made into goods such as wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes.

Crocodile meat is consumed in some countries, such as Australia, Ethiopia, Thailand, South Africa and also Cuba (in pickled form); it can also be found in specialty restaurants in some parts of the United States. The meat is white and its nutritional composition compares favourably with that of other meats[citation needed]. It tends to have a slightly higher cholesterol level than other meats[citation needed]. Crocodile meat has a delicate flavour; some describe it as a cross between chicken and crab[citation needed]. Cuts of meat include backstrap and tail fillet.

Crocodile oil has been used for centuries as a natural healing skin balm.

[edit] References
^ a b c d e f g Grigg, Gordon and Gans, Carl (1993) Morphology And Physiology Of The Crocodylia, in Fauna of Australia Vol 2A Amphibia and Reptilia, chapter 40, pages 326-336. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. PDF
^ http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mp...okodeilos&lang=greek
^ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/crocodile
^ a b http://dictionary.com/browse/crocodile
^ http://etymonline.com/index.php?search=crocodile
^ Uriona TJ, Farmer CG. 2008. Recruitment of the diaphragmaticus, ischiopubis and other respiratory muscles to control pitch and roll in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Journal of Experimental Biology 211: 1141-1147.
^ Huchzermeyer, Fritz (2003). Crocodiles: Biology, Husbandry and Diseases. CABI Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 9780851996561. http://books.google.co.uk/book...=frontcover#PPA13,M1. Retrieved on 2000-01-07.
^ National Geographic documentary; "Bite Force", Brady Barr.
^ a b Sal****er Crocodile, Sal****er Crocodile Profile, Facts, Information, Photos, Pictures, Sounds, Habitats, Reports, News - National Geographic
^ Richford, Andrew S., and Christopher J. Mead (2003). "Pratincoles and Coursers". in Christopher Perrins (Ed.). Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Firefly Books. pp. 252–253. ISBN 1-55297-777-3.
^ Britton, Adam. Estuarine Crocodile: Crocodylus porosus. Crocodilians: Natural History Conservation: Crocodiles, Caimans, Alligators, Gharials. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
^ Read MA, Grigg GC, Irwin SR, Shanahan D, Franklin CE (2007) Satellite Tracking Reveals Long Distance Coastal Travel and Homing by Translocated Estuarine Crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus. PLoS ONE 2(9): e949. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000949
^ Britton, Adam. "Crocodilian Biology Database FAQ, "How fast can a crocodile run?"". http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q4.htm. Retrieved on 2008-02-02.
^ Anitai, Stefan. "14 Amazing Facts About Crocodiles - Living dinosaurs". Softpedia. http://news.softpedia.com/news...ocodiles-69931.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-04-01.
^ "Orissa crocodile recognised as world's largest". Reuters. 2006-06-16. http://in.today.reuters.com/ne...0_India-255100-1.xml. Retrieved on 2006-06-18.
^ Britton Adam. Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. "How long do crocodiles live for?". Retrieved 9/11/2006.
^ profile of Mr Freshy at Australia Zoo website, accessed 1 February 2007
^ McAliley, Willis, Ray, White, Brochu & Densmore (2006). Are crocodiles really monophyletic?—Evidence for subdivisions from sequence and morphological data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39:16-32.

[edit] Further reading
Iskandar, DT (2000). Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea. ITB, Ban****.
Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. "How long do crocodiles live for?" [sic] Adam Britton.
Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. "How fast can a crocodile run?" Adam Britton.

[edit] See also
Wikispecies has information related to: Crocodilia
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Crocodilia
Wikiversity has learning materials about Crocodile
Crocodile attacks
Crocodile exoskeleton
Crocodile oil
Mekosuchine crocodiles
Crocodiles in sewers
The Crocodile Hunter
Steve Irwin
Gustave (crocodile)
Crocodillin

[edit] External links
Crocodilian Online
Crocodilian Biology Database
Crocodile Attacks in Australia
BBC news finds powerful agent in crocodile blood
90m years old fossils of crocodile found in Brazil
Crocodylidae
[show]v • d • eExtant Crocodilian species

Kingdom: Animalia · Phylum: Chordata · Class: Sauropsida · (unranked): Archosauria · Superorder: Crocodylomorpha

[show] Family Gavialidae

Tomistoma False gharial (T. schlegelii)

Gavialis Gharial (G. gangeticus)

[show] Family Alligatoridae

Alligatorinae
(Alligators) Alligator American Alligator (A. mississippiensis) · Chinese Alligator (A. sinensis)

Caimaninae
(Caimans) Paleosuchus Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman (P. palpebrosus) · Smooth-fronted Caiman (P. trigonatus)

Caiman Spectacled Caiman (C. crocodilus) · Broad-snouted Caiman (C. latirostris) · Yacare Caiman (C. yacare)

Melanosuchus Black Caiman (M. niger)

[hide] Family Crocodylidae (Crocodiles)

Crocodylinae Crocodylus American Crocodile (C. acutus) · Slender-snouted Crocodile (C. cataphractus) · Orinoco Crocodile (C. intermedius) · Freshwater Crocodile (C. johnsoni) · Philippine crocodile (C. mindorensis) · Morelet's Crocodile (C. moreletii) · Nile crocodile (C. niloticus) · New Guinea Crocodile (C. novaeguineae) · Mugger Crocodile (C. palustris) · Sal****er Crocodile (C. porosus) · Cuban Crocodile (C. rhombifer) · Siamese Crocodile (C. siamensis)

Osteolaemus Dwarf Crocodile (O. tetraspis)

[show]v • d • eRelated articles on alligators, caimans, crocodiles and gharials

Topics Alligator–Crocodile differentation · Crocodile exoskeleton · Crocodillin · Foramen of Panizza · Gastralium · List of crurotarsans · Madras Crocodile Bank Trust · The Croc Festival

Human
interaction U.S. Alligator fatalities · Crocodile attacks · Crocodile tears · Famous crocodiles and alligators · Sewer alligator

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodile"
Categories: Crocodiles | Crocodylidae | Reptiles of Africa | Reptiles of North America | Reptiles of Asia | Reptiles of South America | Reptiles of Australia
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Insect repellent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Bug spray)
Jump to: navigation, search

Mosquito on a bottle of herbal mosquito repellent.An insect repellent is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces which discourages insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. There are also insect repellent products available based on sound production, particularly ultrasound (inaudibly high frequency sounds). These electronic devices have been shown to have no effect as a mosquito repellent by studies done by the EPA and many universities.[1]

Insect repellents help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, Lyme disease, Dengue fever, bubonic plague, and West Nile fever. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include the insects flea, fly, and mosquito; and the arachnid tick.

Common insect repellents include:

DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide)
Essential oil of the lemon eucalyptus and its active ingredient p-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)
Icaridin, also known as picaridin, Bayrepel, and KBR 3023
Nepetalactone, also known as "catnip oil"
Citronella oil
Permethrin
Neem oil
Bog Myrtle
Usually insect repellents work by masking human scent, or by using a scent which insects naturally avoid.[citation needed] Permethrin is different in that it is actually a contact insecticide.

Contents [hide]
1 Repellent effectiveness
2 Repellent safety
3 Insect repellents from natural sources
4 Inactive substances
5 Less effective methods
6 See also
7 References
8 Notes
9 External links

[edit] Repellent effectiveness
Synthetic repellents tend to be more effective and/or longer lasting than 'natural' repellents.[2][3] However, some plant-based repellents are comparable to, or somewhat better than synthetics - depending on the formula.[2][4][5] Essential oil repellents can be short-lived in their effectiveness, since essential oils can evaporate completely.

A test of various insect repellents by an independent consumer organization found that repellents containing DEET or picaridin are more effective than repellents with 'natural' active ingredients. All the synthetics gave almost 100% repellency for the first 2 hours, where the natural repellent products were most effective for the first 30–60 minutes, and required reapplication to be effective over several hours.[6] However, some products in the market like essential oil candle and natural herb mosquito coil can give protection to an entire room up to 8 hours.

For protection against mosquitos, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control issued a statement in May 2008 recommending equally DEET, picaridin, oil of lemon eucalyptus and IR3535 for skin. [7] Permethrin is recommended for clothing, gear, or bed nets.[2] In an earlier report, the CDC found oil of lemon eucalyptus to be more effective than other plant-based treatments, with a similar effectiveness to low concentrations of DEET.[7] However, a 2006 published study found in both cage and field studies that a product containing 40% oil of lemon eucalyptus was just as effective as products containing high concentrations of DEET. [8] Research has also found that neem oil is mosquito repellent for up to 12 hours.[9] Citronella oil's mosquito repellency has also been verified by research,[10] including effectiveness in repelling Aedes aegypti,[11][12] but requires reapplication after 30–60 minutes.

[edit] Repellent safety

DEET
Icaridin
p-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)Regarding safety with insect repellent use on children and pregnant women:

Children may be at greater risk for adverse reactions to repellents, in part, because their exposure may be greater.
Keep repellents out of the reach of children.
Do not allow children to apply repellents to themselves.
Use only small amounts of repellent on children.
Do not apply repellents to the hands of young children because this may result in accidental eye contact or ingestion.
Try to reduce the use of repellents by dressing children in long sleeves and long pants tucked into boots or socks whenever possible. Use netting over strollers, playpens, etc.
As with chemical exposures in general, pregnant women should take care to avoid exposures to repellents when practical, as the fetus may be vulnerable.
Regardless of which repellent product used, it is recommended that the label is read before use and directions carefully followed.[13] Usage instructions for repellents vary from country to country. Some insect repellents are not recommended for use on younger children.[7]

In the DEET Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) the United States Environmental Protection Agency‎ (EPA) reported 14 to 46 cases of potential DEET associated seizures, including 4 deaths. The EPA states: "... it does appear that some cases are likely related to DEET toxicity," but observed that with 30% of the US population using DEET, the likely seizure rate is only about one per 100 million users.[14]

The Pesticide Information Project of Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University states that, "Everglades National Park employees having extensive DEET exposure were more likely to have insomnia, mood disturbances and impaired cognitive function than were lesser exposed co-workers".[15]

The EPA states that citronella oil shows little or no toxicity and has been used as a topical insect repellent for 60 years. However, the EPA also states that citronella may irritate skin and cause dermatitis in certain individuals.[16] Canadian regulatory authorities concern with citronella based repellents is primarily based on data-gaps in toxicology, not on incidents.[17][18]

Within countries of the European Union, Implementation of Regulation 98/8/EC, commonly referred to as the Biocidal Products Directive, has severely limited the number and type of insect repellents available to European Consumers. Only a small number of active ingredients have been supported by manufacturers in submitting dossiers to the EU Authorities. In general, only formulations containing Deet, Picaridin (also known as Saltidin or Bayrepel) and Citridiol are available. Most "natural" insect repellents such as Citronella, Neem Oil, Herbal Extracts are no longer permitted for sale as insect repellents in the EU (Although this does not preclude them from being sold for "other" purposes, as long as the label does not indicate they are a biocide (insect repellent)

[edit] Insect repellents from natural sources
There are many preparations from naturally occurring sources that are repellent to certain insects. Some of these act as insecticides while others are only repellent.

Achillea alpina (mosquitos)
alpha-terpinene (mosquitos)[19]
Basil[20] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being.
Further information: Ocimum basilicum
)
Callicarpa americana (Beautyberry)[21]
Camphor (moths)[22]
Carvacrol (mosquitos)[19]
Castor oil (mosquitos)[23]
Catnip oil (nepetalactone against mosquitos)[24]
Cedar oil (mosquitos)[23]
Celery extract (mosquitos)[19] In clinical testing an extract of celery was demonstrated to be at least equally effective to 25% DEET[25], although the commercially availability of such an extract is not known.
Cinnamon[26] (leaf oil kills mosquito larvae)[27]
Citronella oil (repels mosquitos)[23]
Clove oil (mosquitos)[23] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being.)
Further information: Oil of cloves
Eucalyptus oil (70%+ eucalyptol), (cineol is a synonym), mosquitos, flies, dust mites[28])
Fennel oil (mosquitos)[19]
Garlic (rice weevil, wheat flour beetle)[29] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being)
Geranium oil (also known as Pelargonium graveolens) [30], [23]
Lavender[31][32]
Lemon eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora) essential oil and its active ingredient p-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD)
Lemongrass[33] (NB: a dose similar to the one as a food ingredient should be used for the time being
Further information: Cymbopogon flexuosus
)
Lemongrass oil (mosquitos)[23]
Marigolds
Marjoram (Spider mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus orientalis)[34]
Neem oil (Repels or kills mosquitos, their larvae and a plethora of other insects including those in agriculture)
Peppermint (mosquitos)[35]
Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) (mosquitos,[28] fleas[36]), but very toxic to pets.[36]
Rosemary[34] (mosquitos)[23]
Spanish Flag Lantana camara (against Tea Mosquito Bug, Helopeltis theivora) [37]
Solanum villosum berry juice (against Stegomyia aegypti mosquitos)[38]
Tea tree[39]
Thyme (mosquitos)[19]

[edit] Inactive substances
While soybean oil has no direct insect repellent activity, it is used as a fixative to extend the short duration of action of essential oils such as geranium oil in several commercial products.[2][40]

Other commercial products offered for household mosquito "control" include small electrical mats, mosquito repellent vapor, DEET-impregnated wrist bands, and mosquito coils containing a form of the chemical allethrin. Mosquito-repellent candles containing citronella oil are sold widely in the U.S. All of these have been used with mixed reports of success and failure.

[edit] Less effective methods
Some old studies suggested that the ingestion of large doses of thiamin could be effective as a **** insect repellent against mosquito bites. However, there is now conclusive evidence that thiamin has no efficacy against mosquito bites. [41][42][43][44] Some claim that plants like wormwood or sagewort, lemon balm, lemon grass, lemon thyme and the mosquito plant (Pelargonium) will act against mosquitoes. However, scientists have determined that these plants are “effective” for a limited time only when the leaves are crushed and applied directly to the skin.[45]

There are several, widespread, unproven theories about mosquito control such as the assertion that vitamin B, in particular B1 (thiamine), garlic, ultrasonic devices, incense, can be used to repel or control mosquitoes.[46][47] Moreover, some manufacturers of "mosquito repelling" ultrasonic devices have been found to be fraudulent,[48] and their devices were deemed "useless" in tests by the UK Consumer magazine Which?[49]

[edit] See also
List of organic fumigants
Insecticide
Mosquito control
Mosquito net
Pest control
Category:Insecticide brands
RID Insect Repellent
Slug tape

[edit] References
Iowa State University Study: Nepetalactone 10 times more effective than DEET
EU Biocidal Products Directive 98/8/EC

[edit] Notes
^ EurekaAlert (April 17, 2007). "Mosquito repellents that emit high-pitched sounds don't prevent bites". Press release. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_...04/jws-mrt041607.php.
^ a b c d M. S. Fradin and J. F. Day (2002). "Comparative Efficacy of Insect Repellents against Mosquito Bites". N Engl J Med 347 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa011699. PMID 12097535.
^ Collins, D.A.; Brady, J.N.; Curtis, C.F. (1993). "Assessment of the efficacy of Quwenling as a Mosquito repellent". Phytotherapy Research 7 (1): 17–20. doi:10.1002/ptr.2650070106.
^ Mishra AK, Singh N, Sharma VP, 1995 "Use of neem oil as a mosquito repellent in tribal villages of mandla district, madhya pradesh", Indian J Malariol, Sep;32(3):99-103 Pubmed
^ Collins, D.A.; Brady, J.N.; Curtis, C.F. (1993). "Assessment of the efficacy of Quwenling as a Mosquito repellent". Phytotherapy Research 7 (1): 17–20. doi:10.1002/ptr.2650070106.
^ "Test: Mosquito Repellents, The Verdict" Choice, The Australian Consumers Association
^ a b c "Updated Information regarding Insect Repellents". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8 May 2008. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbi...repellentupdates.htm.
^ Carroll SP, Loye J, 2006, Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 22(3):507-514, 510
^ Mishra AK, Singh N, Sharma VP, 1995 "Use of neem oil as a mosquito repellent in tribal villages of mandla district, madhya pradesh", Indian J Malariol, Sep;32(3):99-103 Pubmed
^ Jeong-Kyu KIM, Chang-Soo KANG, Jong-Kwon LEE, Young-Ran KIM, Hye-Yun HAN, Hwa Kyung YUN, Evaluation of Repellency Effect of Two Natural Aroma Mosquito Repellent Compounds, Citronella and Citronellal, Entomological Research 35 (2), 117–120, 2005
^ Ibrahim Jantan, and Zaridah Mohd. Zaki, Development of environment-friendly insect repellents from the leaf oils of selected Malaysian plants, ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC), May 1998.
^ Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyan Y, Komalamisra N, Apiwathnasom L, Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites, Phytother Res. 2005 Apr;19(4):303-9 [1]
^ "Health Advisory: Tick and Insect Repellents", Information factsheet, Department of Health, New York State
^ "Reregistration Eligibility Decision: DEET." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. September 1998. pp39-40
^ Deet
^ "U.S. EPA Citronella Factsheet". http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/...factsheet_021901.htm. Retrieved on July 20 2007.
^ (PDF) Re-evaluation of Citronella Oil and Related Active Compounds for Use as Personal Insect Repellents. Pest Management Regulatory Agency (Canada). 17 September 2004. ISBN 0-662-38012-6. http://www.pmra-arla.gc.ca/eng...cr/pacr2004-36-e.pdf.
^ "So Then: Who’s Afraid of Citronella Oil? Update!" Cropwatch Newsletter Vol 2,Issue 1, No. 1
^ a b c d e "Natural Mosquito Repellents - Which Natural Mosquito Repellents Work Best?". altmedicine.about.com. http://altmedicine.about.com/o...index/a/mosquito.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ Taverne, Janice (2001). "Malaria on the Web and the mosquito-repellent properties of basil". Trends in Parasitology 17 (6): 299–300. doi:10.1016/S1471-4922(01)01978-X.
^ "A Granddad's Advice May Help Thwart Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. http://www.sciencedaily.com/re.../02/060201233218.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ "Camphor (white)". www.aromatherapy-oil.co.uk. http://www.aromatherapy-oil.co.uk/camphor.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ a b c d e f g "Natural Mosquito Repellents". chemistry.about.com. http://chemistry.about.com/cs/...work/a/aa050503a.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ "Catnip Repels Mosquitoes More Effectively Than DEET". www.sciencedaily.com. http://www.sciencedaily.com/re.../08/010828075659.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu...les&logdbfrom=pubmed
^ Beck, Leslie, Cinnamon — December 2006's Featured Food, http://www.lesliebeck.com/ingr...hp?featured_food=80, retrieved on 2007-05-01
^ "Cinnamon Oil Kills Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com. http://www.sciencedaily.com/re.../07/040716081706.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ a b "Natural Insect and Rodent Repellents - Quick & Simple". www.quickandsimple.com. http://www.quickandsimple.com/...ct-rodent-repellents. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
^ Rahman, G. K. M. M.; N. Motoyama (1998). "Identification of the active components of garlic causing repellent effect against the rice weevil and the wheat flour beetle". Nihon Oyo Doubutsu Konchu Gakkai Taikai Koen Youshi 42: 211. http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/...19991699A0654161.php. Retrieved on 22 November.
^ Botha, B. M.; C. M. McCrindle (2000). "An appropriate method for extracting the insect repellent citronellol from an indigenous plant (Pelargonium graveolens L'Her) for potential use by resource-limited animal owners". http://grande.nal.usda.gov/ibi...rences&therow=132095. Retrieved on 30 May 2009.
^ Jaenson, Thomas G. T. et al. (2006). "Repellency of Oils of Lemon Eucalyptus, Geranium, and Lavender and the Mosquito Repellent MyggA Natural to Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the Laboratory and Field". Journal of Medical Entomology 43 (4): 731 – 736. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[731:ROOOLE]2.0.CO;2.
^ Cook, Samantha M. et al. (2007). "Responses of Phradis parasitoids to volatiles of lavender, Lavendula angustifolia —a possible repellent for their host, Meligethes aeneus". BioControl (Springer) 52 (5): 591–598. doi:10.1007/s10526-006-9057-x.
^ Oyedele, A.O. et al. (2002). "Formulation of an effective mosquito-repellent topical product from Lemongrass oil". Phytomedicine 9 (3): 259–262. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00120.
^ a b Momen, F. M. et al. (2001). "Repellent and Oviposition-Deterring Activity of Rosemary and Sweet Marjoram on the Spider Mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus orientalis (Acari: Tetranychidae)". Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica (Akadémiai Kiadó) 36 (1 - 2): 155–164. doi:10.1556/APhyt.36.2001.1-2.18.
^ Ansari, M. A. et al. (2000). "Larvicidal and mosquito repellent action of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil". Bioresource Technology 71 (3): 267–271. doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00079-6.
^ a b "Warnings". bitsandbrew.com. http://bitsandbrew.com/warning1.htm. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
^ Deka, M. K. et al. (22 Apr). "Antifeedant and Repellent Effects of Pongam (Pongamia Pinnata) and Wild Sage (Lantana Camara) on Tea Mosquito Bug (Helopeltis Theivora)". Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 68 (5): 274. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=10690847. Retrieved on 22 November.
^ "Common Weed, Ayurvedic Nightshade, Deadly For Dengue Mosquito". www.sciencedaily.com. http://www.sciencedaily.com/re.../04/080402194403.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
^ U.S. Patent 5,738,863
^ Barnard, D.R. and R. Xue. 2004. Laboratory evaluation of mosquito repellents against Aedes albopictus, Culex nigripalpus, and Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 41(4):726-730.
^ BMJ Clinical Evidence
^ Ives AR, Paskewitz SM (2005). "Testing vitamin B as a home remedy against mosquitoes". J. Am. Mosq. Control. Assoc. 21 (2): 213–217. doi:10.2987/8756-971X(2005)21[213:TVBAAH]2.0.CO;2. PMID 16033124. http://apt.allenpress.com/perl...AH%5D2.3.CO%3B2&ct=1.
^ Khan AA, Maibach HI, Strauss WG, Fenley WR. (2005). "Vitamin B1 is not a systemic mosquito repellent in man". Trans. St. Johns Hosp. Dermatol. Soc. 55 (1): 99–102. PMID 4389912.
^ Strauss WG, Maibach HI, Khan AA (1968). "Drugs and disease as mosquito repellents in man". Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 17 (3): 461–464. PMID 4385133.
^ [2]
^ Insect bites and stings. DermNet NZ[dead link]
^ http://www.vnh.org/NHB/HW9421Mosquito2.html[dead link]
^ Lentek International-08/28/02
^ "The great mosquito sting". 6 Sept 2005. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pag...1429&in_page_id=1774. Retrieved on 2007-08-09.

[edit] External links
Choosing and Using Insect Repellents - National Pesticide Information Center
Alan Wood. "Insect Repellents". Compendium of Pesticide Common Names. http://www.alanwood.net/pestic...sect_repellents.html.
Jeanie Lerche Davis (2003). "Best Insect Repellent for Mosquitoes: Bug Experts Rate Products to Keep West Nile Virus at Bay". WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/news/2003...t-mosquito-repellent.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (28 April 2005). "CDC Adopts New Repellent Guidance". Press release. http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/pressrel/r050428.htm.
Department of Health, New York State. "Health Advisory: Tick and Insect Repellents". http://www.health.state.ny.us/...e/education/2737.htm.
Plant parts with Insect-repellent Activity from the chemical Borneol (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases)
Understanding ingredients and differences between insect repellents
Mosquito repellents; Florida U
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_repellent"
Categories: Household chemicals | Insect repellents | Entomology | Hiking equipment
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Kit Kat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kit kat)
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses of "Kit Kat" or "Kit Cat", see Kit Kat (disambiguation).
Kit Kat

Type Confectionery
Current owner Nestlé
(The Hershey Company under licence)
Country of origin United Kingdom
Introduced 1935
Markets World
A Kit Kat is a confection which was first created by Rowntree Limited of York, England, and now produced worldwide by Nestlé, which acquired Rowntree in 1988,[1] except in the USA where it is made under licence by Hershey's. Each bar consists of fingers composed of three layers of crème-filled wafer, covered in an outer layer of chocolate. Each finger can be snapped from the bar one at a time.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Global confection
3 Brand name and appearance
4 Marketing and promotion
5 Kit Kat varieties
5.1 Standard finger bars
5.2 Large single finger Chunky bars
5.3 Other Kit Kat forms and shapes
6 Ingredients
6.1 UK
6.2 USA
6.3 Canada
6.4 Canada (Dark Kit Kat)
7 Big Brother UK Series 7 golden ticket draw
8 References
9 External links

[edit] History

USA Kit KatThe original four-finger version of this chocolate-covered biscuit bar was developed after a worker at the Rowntree's factory in York put a suggestion in the suggestion box for a snack that a 'man could have in his lunch box for work'.[citation needed] It was launched in September 1935 in the UK as Rowntree's Chocolate Crisp (price: 2d). The two-finger version was launched on May 15, 1936. Rowntree's Chocolate Crisp was renamed Kit Kat Chocolate Crisp in 1937, and later just Kit Kat after World War II. The name is believed to have come from the Kit-Cat Club, an eighteenth-century political club for artists.[2]

USA 4-finger Kit KatThe traditional bar has four fingers which each measure approximately 1 cm by 9 cm. The Kit Kat Chunky (known as Big Kat in the U.S.) has one large finger approximately 2.5 cm wide and was introduced in 1999. Kit Kat bars contain varying numbers of fingers depending on the market, ranging from the half-finger sized Kit Kat Petit in Japan to the three-fingered variants in Arabia to the twelve-finger Kit Kat family-size bars in Australia and France. Kit Kat bars are sold either individually or in bags, boxes or multi-packs. In the UK and Canada, Nestlé also produces a Kit Kat ice cream; and in Malaysia, Kit Kat Drumsticks.

[edit] Global confection
The Kit Kat has been manufactured by Nestlé for Canada, Germany, Japan, and Australia. Kit Kat bars available in the United States are manufactured under licence by The Hershey Company, a Nestlé competitor, due to a prior licensing agreement with Rowntree. Kit Kat bars are manufactured in 15 countries: UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Algeria, South Africa, Germany, Japan, China, Malaysia, India, Turkey, Venezuela and Bulgaria.

In the UK, Kit Kat is the number one brand both as a confectionery item and as a biscuit. In both the US and Canada, the Kit Kat is also extremely popular and is one of the top ten candy bar brands.

Japanese strawberry-flavoured Kit KatIn recent years, Kit Kats have also become very popular in Japan, a phenomenon attributed to the coincidental similarity between the bar's name and the Japanese phrase kitto katsu, which roughly translates to "You will surely win!" This has reportedly led to parents and children buying them for school examination days as a sort of good luck charm.[3] However, transliteration is not always in Nestlé's favour - kitto katto (where 'katto' is taken to be a katakana transliteration of the English verb 'cut') is understood to bestow Kit Kat with the less positive significance of "you will surely miss the cut". As such, gifts of a single kit-kat are a running joke for senior high school students taking the University Entrance Examinations in some areas. It is also in Japan that Kit Kat has in recent years seen a variety of different flavours emerge, although each for a limited time. Some examples include, maple syrup, melon, vanilla bean, grape, apple, banana, caramel, kiwifruit, azuki, green tea, yuzu and cherry blossom. Further building on the teen market, Nestlé created a music label in 2005 and bundled Kit Kats with CDs which has propelled the Kit Kat to become the #1 selling biscuit in Japan.[4] The year 2003 was a turning point for the Kit Kat bar as well as the confectionery industry in general. The popularity of low carb diets and the push to healthier eating stifled sales growth in many parts of the world. In addition, fierce competition from Cadbury's newly formed Dairy Milk superbrand also contributed to sales of the Kit Kat decreasing considerably in its home market of the UK and threatened to depose it from its #1 position.[5][6] The solution adopted by Nestlé and others was to increase dramatically the number of new and unique variations of their confections and market them as limited or special editions whereby they would usually only be available for a few months at a time so as not to impact the sales of their permanent edition counterparts.[7] The strategy initially reversed the decline of the Kit Kat[8]and has been adopted worldwide by Nestlé, Hershey, Mars and others with similar success.[9][10]

This has resulted in many new flavours and varieties of the Kit Kat and other confections appearing globally since then. While some flavours have been hits, many have flopped, alienating some consumers in the process, causing Nestlé to scale back on new releases.

In late 2005 Chris White, the managing director of Nestlé Rowntree abruptly left his job amid controversy that his marketing strategies may in fact have had a negative impact on Kit Kat and confection sales in the long term.[11] Also, in September 2006 Nestlé announced they were eliminating 25% of their workforce in York and moving production of Smarties to Germany. One of the reasons given for the cuts and moves was so that the York factory could be modernised for Kit Kat production to continue.[12]

As dark chocolate has seen increased demand and favour worldwide because of its purported health benefits, September 2006 saw the launch of the four-finger Kit Kat Fine Dark in the UK as a permanent edition as well as new packaging for the entire brand.[citation needed] Hershey, which had previously sold the four-finger Kit Kat Dark in the US several years ago as a limited edition, is also expected to re-introduce the bar as a permanent edition in the near future.

[edit] Brand name and appearance
The traditional red wrapper of the original bar briefly became blue between 1945 - 1947. As a result of milk shortages after the end of World War II, the milk chocolate coating was suspended and a dark chocolate was used instead during that period.

In the UK, Nestlé has confirmed that the correct spelling of the brand name is KIT KAT.

The United States version of the logo.The Hershey Company has a licence to produce Kit Kat bars in the United States which dates from 1969, when Hershey executed a licensing agreement for both the Kit Kat and the Rolo with Rowntree. Nestlé, which has a substantial presence in the US, had to honour the licensing agreement which allows Hershey to retain the Kit Kat / Rolo licence so long as Hershey is not sold. This was a factor in Hershey's failed attempt to attract a serious buyer in 2002.[13][14]

Hershey's Kit Kat packaging and advertising in the USA has differed from the branding used in every other country where it is sold, although in 2002 Hershey Kit Kats finally started to adopt the slanted ellipse logo used worldwide by Nestlé (Though the ellipse is red and the text is white, rather than the other way around).

[edit] Marketing and promotion
After launching in the 1930s, Rowntree's Chocolate Crisp was originally advertised as "the biggest little meal" and "the best companion to a cup of tea". During the Second World War, Kit Kat was depicted as a valuable wartime foodstuff, with the slogan "what active people need". 'Kitty the Kat' arrived in the late 1940s to emphasise the "rich full cream milk" qualities of the bar and, thanks to contemporary improvements in production methods, also highlighted the new and improved 'snap' by responding to a biscuit being broken off screen. The first Kit Kat poster appeared in 1951, and the first colour TV advert appeared in 1969.

Since 1957, the slogan for the Kit Kat in the UK and elsewhere has been "Have a break... have a Kit Kat". However, in 1995, Nestlé sought to trademark the "Have a break" portion. After a ten year legal battle which was contested by rival Mars, the European Court of Justice ruled on July 7, 2005 to send the case back to the British Courts.[15]

In the meantime, Nestlé UK changed the slogan in 2004 to "Make the most of your break".[16] The new slogan was not embraced outside of the UK and recently Nestlé Rowntree has returned to using the original slogan.

The "classic" American version of the "Gimme a Break" Kit Kat jingle (in use in the US since 1986) was written by Ken Shuldman (lyrics) and Michael A. Levine (music) for the DDB Advertising Agency. Versions of the original have been covered by Carrie Underwood, Shawn Colvin, and many studio singers as well as people who have appeared on-camera in the commercials. The jingle was cited in a study by University of Cincinnati researcher James A. Kellaris as one of the top ten "earworms" - bits of melody that become stuck in your head. Another version of the advertising jingle 'Gimme a break' created for Kit Kat "Factory" commercial in the USA was an original recording by Andrew W.K. W.K. was hired to write a new musical version for their "Gimme a break" slogan. Variations on the Andrew W.K. advertisement included executive dance routines in corporate offices, and a network news room. However, the "classic" song has also been used again since the newer version first aired in 2004.

A 1989 advertisement for Kit Kat, in which a giant panda in a zoo "takes a break" came 30th in Channel 4's "100 Greatest Adverts" poll in 2000. Another memorable 1980s UK TV advert for Kit Kat featured a music mogul auditioning a new band, ending with the line "You can't sing, you can't play, you look awful" (Pause) "You'll go a long way."

KitKash is one of the most recent Kit Kat promotions by Nestlé. Premiering in Australia and New Zealand in 2004, each Kit Kat wrapper contained a unique code inside. A winning code was potentially worth $20, $50, $100 or even $10,000. In 2005 the UK's KitKash involved registering an account on the KitKash website and accumulating the codes which each had a point value in order to buy, bid or win products on the site. In 2006 KitKash has been expanded in the UK to include KitKash points in many of Nestlé's other confections as well as spread to Germany (ChocoCash) and France (Kit Kat Kode). USA Kit Kats are also part of the action thanks to Hershey (WrapperCash).

In late 2004, through to the end of 2006, Nestlé Rowntree sponsored York City F.C.. As a result the club's home-ground, Bootham Crescent, was renamed to KitKat Crescent.[17]

[edit] Kit Kat varieties
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2008)

Many varieties of Kit Kat have existed, either temporarily or permanently: There are often country-specific limited edition bars (not listed). (listed by primary market or origin)

The Kit Kat Orange was the first flavour variant. It was introduced in the UK in 1996, followed in 1997 by the Kit Kat Dark and Kit Kat Mint.[citation needed] As of 2008, all three are available as permanent editions in the UK in two finger multipacks, along with the Kit Kat Original and Kit Kat White.

A three-finger Kit Kat is produced for the Middle East, simply to match a denomination of the local currency and make the product a convenient, one-coin purchase.

A wide variety of promotional items exist, ranging from the obvious (such as mugs, pens, oven gloves and tea-towels) to the somewhat less obvious (such as Kit Kat coats for small dogs). Recently in Japan, Kit Kats have come packaged with CD singles and a special limited edition double pack of Kit Kat Crispy Monogatari came bundled with a mini book featuring six short stories, one of which is written by Koji Suzuki, author of the Ring cycle series of books. The brand is often declined into special edition products in different markets to commemorate festivals such as St. Valentine's Day.

Japan has pushed Kit Kat flavours the most. Kit Kat Japan also has unique "Regional" variations such as a mango-flavoured Kit Kat available only in Kyushu and Okinawa.

Kit Kat is also available in jars that are dispensed from vending machines in Japan.

[edit] Standard finger bars
This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (July 2009)

The standard finger bars include mini single fingers (pe**** or miniatures), two finger mini bars, four (or three) finger standard bars, and "king size" bars (five to eight fingers).

A UK standard 2 finger bar in 2008 packagingKit Kat Original — (different taste & texture in different countries)
Kit Kat Fine Dark — UK, Spain & Germany variant of Kit Kat Dark Chocolate
Kit Kat Cacao 61% — Japan — newer version of Kit Kat Bitter with 61% cocoa content
Kit Kat Sakura (Cherry blossom) — Japan —
Kit Kat Cacao 72% — Japan — dark chocolate pe**** with 72% cocoa content
Kit Kat White Creme — US permanent edition — current version of US Kit Kat White made with vegetable oil based candy coating rather than pure white chocolate
Kit Kat White — Japan & Spain
Kit Kat Iced Tea — Japan
Kit Kat Caramel and Salt — Japan
Kit Kat Kinako (soybean flour) — Japan
Kit Kat Wa Guri (Chestnut flavour) — Japan
Kit Kat Green Tea — Japan
Kit Kat Milky White — Germany variant of Kit Kat White Chocolate
Kit Kat Mint — UK permanent edition, US limited edition — mint flavoured milk chocolate coating
Kit Kat Mint Chocolate — Australia — mint green colour wafers
Kit Kat Apple — Japan
Kit Kat Orange — UK permanent edition, US, Japan, Malaysia limited edition.
Kit Kat International Recipe — Malaysia, Singapore and selected East Asian countries — The chocolate were made from Ghana cocoa beans thus having the tendencies to melt down very easily when compared to Kit Kat Original.
Kit Kat Café Latte with Hokkaidō Milk — Japan
Kit Kat Kiwifruit — Japan
Kit Kat Strawberry — Japan
Kit Kat Peach — Japan
Kit Kat Caramac — UK
Kit Kat Chocolate Overload — Australia — Milk Chocolate outside, chocolate creme filling and chocolate wafers
Kit Kat Gold — Japan — pe**** with fudge like covering and dusted cocoa powder on outside
Kit Kat Noisette (Hazelnut) — Germany
Kit Kat Lite — India — two finger bar with 50% less sugar
Kit Kat Carb Alternatives — US — low carb version with 50% less sugar carbs
Kit Kat Low Carb — UK
Kit Kat Cantaloupe; Japan
Kit Kat Pineapple; South Africa
Kit Kat Cappuccino; Poland
Kit Kat Triple Berry; Japan
Kit Kat Mango; Japan
Kit Kat Azuki (Red Bean); Japan
Kit Kat Green Grape Muscat; Japan[18]
Kit Kat Caramel Macchiato; Japan (September 2008)[19]
Kit Kat Zunda - mashed edamame beans; Japan (only in Yamagata prefecture)
Kit Kat Hascapp - Hokkaido blueberry; Japan (only in Hokkaido prefecture)
Kit Kat Soy Sauce - "Tokyo Limited Edition" ; Japan
Kit Kat Yakimorokoshi - grilled corn; Japan (only in Hokkaido prefecture)
Kit Kat Jyagaimo - potato; Japan (only in Hokkaido prefecture)
Kit Kat Daigakuimo - candied sweet potato; Japan
Kit Kat Kobe pudding - "Kobe Limited Edition" ; Japan
Kit Kat Houjicha - Japanese roasted tea ; Japan
Kit Kat Kokuto - Black sugar ; Japan
Kit Kat Watermelon and Salt ; Japan
Kit Kat Pumpkin ; Japan
Kit Kat Edamame ; Japan
Kit Kat Banana; Canada
Kit Kat Lemon Chocolate ; Japan (Valentine's limited edition)
Kit Kat Cookies & Chocolate ; Japan
Kit Kat Cookies PLUS ; Japan
Kit Kat Dark Chocolate; Italy
Kit Kat White Chocolate; Italy
Kit Kat Apple Vinegar; Japan

[edit] Large single finger Chunky bars
This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (July 2009)

Kit Kat Chunky
Kit Kat Chunky and Kit Kat Chunky Peanut Butter, as sold in the UK (September 2006)Kit Kat Chunky — UK, Canada, everywhere besides US, Japan , Hong Kong
Kit Kat Big Kat — Japan & Hershey US version of Chunky
Kit Kat Big Kat Bitter — Japan
Kit Kat Black — Turkey — a dark chocolate chunky
Kit Kat Big Break — UK — extra large Chunky bar
Kit Kat Chunky M.A.X. (Maximum Appetite Xcitement) — Canada — another extra large Chunky bar
Kit Kat Chunky White — limited or permanent edition in many different countries
Kit Kat Cookie Dough — Australia
Kit Kat Chunky Hazelnut Cream — Germany
Kit Kat Honeycomb — Australia
Kit Kat caramel — US version of Kit Kat Chunky Caramel
Kit Kat Chunky Caramel — Canada, Australia and UK
Kit Kat Editions Golden Caramel — UK — same as Chunky Caramel
Kit Kat Editions Caramel Dream — Germany — another Chunky Caramel
Kit Kat Peanut butter — UK, Canada, Europe, Australia, — Chunky with peanut butter filling
Kit Kat Editions Tiramisu — UK
Kit Kat Extra Crispy — US — Chunky with a six layer wafer
Kit Kat Strawberry; Australia and raises funds for the National Breast Cancer Foundation
Kit Kat Cookies n Cream; Australia, released in August 2008.
Kit Kat Cinnamon; Canada
Kit Kat Coffee; Canada

[edit] Other Kit Kat forms and shapes
This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (July 2009)

Kit Kat Choc'n'Go — France — box of individually wrapped fingers
Kit Kat Choc'n'Go Dark Choco — France limited edition — dark chocolate coating with caramelised cocoa pieces
Kit Kat Delight — Italy
Kit Kat Family Block — Australia — twelve finger family size bar
Kit Kat Family Block Chocolate Overload — Australia
Kit Kat I-Stick — Japan limited edition — Creamy bitter chocolate between wafers and dark chocolate coating — two stick format sold in cooler or freezer section of stores
Kit Kat Stick — Japan — box of individually wrapped long Kit Kat fingers
Kit Kat Stick Almond — Japan
Kit Kat Stick Half Bitter — Japan
Kit Kat Tablet — France — same as Kit Kat Family Block
Kit Kat Ball — France — bag of round bite-size pieces
Kit Kat Bites — US, Malaysia &, — similar to Kit Kat ball
Kit Kat Little — Japan — newer version of Kit Kat Baby
Kit Kat Pop Choc — UK, Germany, Poland, The Netherlands — also identical to Kit Kat Ball
Kit Kat Kubes — UK — square-shaped miniature pieces
Kit Kat Chunky — The Netherlands — Bigger size Kit Kat Chunky
Kit Kat Senses; UK & Ireland — hazelnut praline centred
Kit Kat Chunky Duo; UK; A little larger than a Kit Kat Chunky Kingsize, and split into two separate bars.
Kit Kat (Finger size) Almost half the size of a kit kat bar; Pakistan
Kit Kat Watermelon Minis; Japan[18]
Kit Kat Black Sugar Minis; Japan[18]
Kit Kat Cone - Ice-cream cone with vanilla ice-cream covered in chocolate with a single Kit Kat stick in the top; Japan, Denmark

[edit] Ingredients
Original Kit Kat ingredients unless otherwise stated, listed by decreasing weight:

[edit] UK
Milk chocolate (66%) (sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa mass, dried skimmed milk, whey powder, butterfat, vegetable fat, lactose, emulsifier (soya lecithin), flavouring), wheat flour, sugar, vegetable fat, cocoa mass, yeast, raising agent (sodium bicarbonate), salt, calcium sulphate (a.k.a Gypsum), flavouring. In 2006, the UK four-finger Kit Kat contained 233 dietary calories (kcal) (975 kilojoules). In 2009, the two-finger Kit Kat contained 107 calories.[citation needed]

[edit] USA
Sugar, wheat flour, cocoa butter, non-fat milk, chocolate, refined palm kernel oil, lactose, milk fat, soy lecithin, PGPR (emulsifier), yeast, artificial flavour, salt, sodium bicarbonate.

[edit] Canada
Milk Chocolate (Sugar, Modified Milk Ingredients, Cocoa Butter, Unsweetened Chocolate, Lactose, Soya Lecithin, Polyglycerol Polyricnoleate, Artificial Flavour), Wheat Flour, Sugar, Modified Palm Oil, Unsweetened Chocolate or Cocoa Powder, Sodium Bicarbonate, Soya Lecithin, Artificial Flavour. May contain Salt and Yeast.

[edit] Canada (Dark Kit Kat)
Dark Chocolate (Sugar, Unsweetened Chocolate, Cocoa Butter, Milk Ingredients, Soya Lechithin, Salt, Artificial Flavour), Wheat Flour, Sugar, Modified Palm Oil, Unsweetened Chocolate or Cocoa Powder, Sodium Bicarbonate, Soya Lechithin, Artificial Flavour. May contain Salt and/or Yeast.

[edit] Big Brother UK Series 7 golden ticket draw
During the first three weeks of Big Brother Series 7, Channel 4 conducted a promotion in conjunction with Nestle to distribute 100 golden tickets randomly throughout Kit Kat biscuits, in a style reminiscent of the story Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Members of the public finding these tickets were permitted to use them to give themselves a chance to become a Big Brother housemate and bypass the standard auditions process.

Golden ticket holders were invited to a television show where one of them, Susie Verrico, was chosen to enter the House by Aisleyne Horgan-Wallace, picking a ball out of a machine at random.

This contest caused some controversy, with the Advertising Standards Authority saying that the terms and conditions of the draw should have been made clearer in related advertisements, and that an independent adjudicator should have been present before and during the draw.[20]

[edit] References
^ "Nestle UK Website- History of Rowntree". http://www.nestle.co.uk/OurBra...tory+of+Rowntree.htm. Retrieved on 2007-04-04. "1988 - Nestlé SA buys Rowntree plc."
^ http://kitkat.co.uk/past/
^ Japan snaps up 'lucky' Kit Kats, BBC News, February 2, 2005
^ Kit Kat bags Platinum at Marketing Effectiveness Awards, Televisionpoint.com, Jun 29, 2006
^ Fat profits: Choc tactics, BBC News, 24 March, 2004
^ Consumers 'snub unhealthy brands', BBC News, 13 December, 2003
^ Robert Uhlig, Cheesecake Kit Kat? Give us a break, Daily Telegraph, February 19, 2004
^ http://www.irn-talkingshop.co....ghurt%20Boosts%20Kit Kat.pdf
^ Limited Editions Are Latest Candy Craze, ABC News, July 18, 2005
^ Jenn Abelson, Limited-edition candies sweeten the marketplace, Boston Globe, May 2, 2005
^ Nestle: Crisis follows crisis at Nestle, Brand Republic, November 16, 2005 (pay)
^ [1] Reuters, September 9, 2006 (link now dead)
^ Nestlé quiet on Hershey sale, Confectionery News, August 05, 2002
^ Andrew Ross Sorkin, New York Times, Possible buyers, seller far apart on Hershey sale, San Francisco Chronicle, August 27, 2002
^ Kit Kat slogan dispute sent back to U.K. courts, International Herald Tribune, July 8, 2005
^ Slaven Marinovich, Kit Kat barred, Brand Channel, June 6, 2005 issue
^ Kat.shtml Kit Kat Crescent, BBC North Yorkshire, January 19, 2005
^ a b c http://rinkya.blogspot.com/200...order-on-rinkya.html "New Kit Kats For Order On Rinkya!" (9 September 2008). Retrieved on 7 October 2008.
^ Kat/limited/kk_caramel_mac.html "ネスレキットカットキャラメルマキアート味". Retrieved 7 October 2008. (Japanese)
^ "ITV News Website:Big Brother contest slammed again". http://www.itv.com/news/entert...9c89259fbfc6132.html. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.

[edit] External links
Nestlé: Kit Kat
Kit Kat - Official UK Web Site
Kit Kat Italia – Official Web Site
Kit Kat Australia - Official Web Site
Kit Kat France - Official Web Site
KitKat Germany - Official Web Site
Kit Kat Japan - Official Web Site
Kit Kat New Zealand – Official Web Site
Kit Kat Russia – Official Web Site
Kit Kat Singapore – Official Web Site
Kit Kat Switzerland – Official Web Site
Kit Kat UK - Official Web Site
Kit Kat US - Official Web Site
[show]v • d • eNestlé

Corporate directors Günter Blobel · Peter Brabeck-Letmathe · Nobuyuki Idei · Henri Nestlé · Kaspar Villiger

Brands

Worldwide 100 Grand Bar · Abuelita · Aero · After Eight · Alpo · Arrowhead Water · Baby Ruth · Beggin' Strips · Beneful · Bertie Beetle · Big Turk · Breakaway · Butterfinger · Caramac · Carnation · Caro · Cerelac · Chico babies · Chipwich · Goobers · Raisinets · Chokito · Chunky · Coffee Crisp · Coffee-Mate · Creamola Foam · Deer Park Spring Water Co. · Dog Chow · Drammens Is · Dreyer's · Drumstick · Eskimo Pie · Gerber · Hjem-IS · Hot Pockets · Ice Screamers · Jelly Tots · Jenny Craig · Juicy Juice · KLIM · La Lechera · Lean Cuisine · Lion Bar · Mackintosh's Toffee · Maggi · Maggi noodles · Matchmakers · Maverick · Maxibon · Menier Chocolate · Milkybar · Milo · Mirage · Mövenpick · Munchies · Nescafé · Nespresso · Nesquik · Nestea · Nestle Fav*rites · Nestlé Crunch · Nestlé Pure Life · Nestlé Stixx · Nestlé Wonder Ball · Nido · ONE · Oompas · Ozarka · Parlour · Peppermint Crisp · Perrier · Perugina · Poland Spring · Polly Waffle · PowerBar · Pretzel flipz · Purina · Quality Street · Redskins · Rowntree's · Rowntree's Fruit Gums · Rowntree's Fruit Pastilles · San Pellegrino · Scorched Peanut Bar · Sin Parar · Sjora · Smarties · Sno-Caps · Spree · Stouffer's · Svitoch · Tender Vittles · Toffee Crisp · Toll House · Turtles · Vice versas · Violet Crumble · Walnut Whip · The Willy Wonka Candy Company · Yorkie

Worldwide
with exceptions Aquarel (Only Portugal, Spain and Brazil) · Cereal Partners Worldwide (not USA/Canada) · Häagen-Dazs1 (only USA/Canada) · Kit Kat2 (not USA) · Oh Henry!2 (not Canada) · Ovaltine3 (malt only in USA) · Rolo2 (not USA)

1 Brand owned by General Mills. 2 Local production rights owned by The Hershey Company. 3 Local rights and specific trade dress owned by Nestlé, but not worldwide.

See also Nestlé boycott · International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes

Annual revenue ▲ 98,5 billion CHF (8% profit) (2006) · Employees 305,000 · Stock symbol SIX: NESN OTCBB: NSRGY · Website nestle.com

[show]v • d • eConfectionery products of The Hershey Company

Italics indicates discontinued products.

Chocolate-based 5th Avenue · Almond Joy · Bar None · Cadbury Creme Egg2 · Cadbury Dairy Milk2 · Cherry Blossom · Glosette · Heath bar · Hershey bar · Hershey's Cookies 'n' Creme · Hershey's Kisses · Hershey's Kissables · Hershey's Miniatures · Hershey's S'mores · Hershey's Special Dark · Kit Kat2 · Krackel · Milk Duds · Mini Eggs2 · Mounds · Mr. Goodbar · NutRageous · Oh Henry!1 · Rolo2 · Reese's Fast Break · Reese's Peanut Butter Cups · ReeseSticks · Skor · Snack Barz · Swoops · Take 5 (Max 5) · Whatchamacallit · Whoppers · York Peppermint Pattie

Others Bubble Yum · Good & Plenty · Good & Fruity · Ice Breakers · Jolly Rancher · Koolerz · PayDay · Reese's Pieces · Twizzlers · Zagnut · ZERO

Hershey's also manufactures Cadbury-branded products in the United States and military chocolate for the U.S. armed forces.

1 Marketed in both the United States and Canada, but only sold as a Hershey's product within Canada.
2 Marketed in a number of countries, but only sold as a Hershey's product within the United States.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit_Kat"
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Condom
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the male contraceptive device. For the female contraceptive device, see female condom. For the town in France, see Condom, Gers.
Condom

A rolled-up condom
Background
B.C. type Barrier
First use Ancient
Rubber: 1855
Latex: 1920
Polyurethane: 1994
Pregnancy rates (first year, latex)
Perfect use 2%
Typical use 10–18%
Usage
User reminders Latex condoms damaged by oil-based lubricants
Advantages and disadvantages
STD protection Yes
Benefits No medications or clinic visits required
A condom (pronounced /ˈkɒndəm/ (US) or /ˈkɒndɒm/ (UK)) is a barrier device most commonly used during sexual intercourse to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy and spreading sexually transmitted diseases (STDs—such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV). It is put on a man's erect ***** and physically blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner. Because condoms are waterproof, elastic, and durable, they are also used in a variety of secondary applications. These include collection of semen for use in infertility treatment as well as non-sexual uses such as creating waterproof microphones[1] and protecting rifle barrels from clogging.[2]

In the modern age, condoms are most often made from latex, but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane, or lamb intestine. A female condom is also available, most often made of polyurethane. As a method of contraception, male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, having few side effects, and of offering protection against sexually transmitted diseases.[3][4] With proper knowledge and application technique—and use at every act of intercourse—users of male condoms experience a 2% per-year pregnancy rate.[5]

Condoms have been used for at least 400 years.[6]:51,54-5 Since the nineteenth century, they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world.[6]:173-4 While widely accepted in modern times, condoms have generated some controversy, primarily over what role they should play in *** education classes. Additionally, improper disposal of condoms contributes to litter problems,[7] and the Roman Catholic Church generally opposes condom use.[8]

Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Before the 19th century
1.2 1800 through 1920s
1.3 Rubber and manufacturing advances
1.4 1930 to present
2 Etymology and other terms
3 Varieties
3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Natural latex
3.1.2 Synthetic
3.1.3 Lambskin
3.2 Spermicidal
3.3 Female
3.4 Textured
3.5 Other
4 Effectiveness
4.1 In preventing pregnancy
4.2 In preventing STDs
4.3 Causes of failure
5 Prevalence
6 Use
6.1 Role in *** education
6.2 Infertility treatment
6.3 Other uses
7 Debate and criticism
7.1 Disposal and environmental impact
7.2 Position of the Roman Catholic Church
7.3 Health issues
8 Cultural factors
9 Major manufacturers
10 Research
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links

History

A page from De Morbo Gallico (The French Disease), Gabriele Falloppio's treatise on syphilis. Published in 1564, it describes what is possibly the first use of condoms.Main article: History of condoms

Before the 19th century
Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians.[6]:11 In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman's responsibility, and the only well documented contraception methods were female-controlled devices.[6]:17,23 In Asia before the fifteenth century, some use of glans condoms (devices covering only the head of the *****) is recorded. Condoms seem to have been used for contraception, and to have been known only by members of the upper classes. In China, glans condoms may have been made of oiled silk paper, or of lamb intestines. In Japan, they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn.[6]:60-1

In 16th century Italy, Gabriele Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis.[6]:51,54-5 The earliest documented strain of syphilis, first appearing in a 1490s outbreak, caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease.[9][10] Fallopio's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use: it describes linen sheaths soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use. The cloths he described were sized to cover the glans of the *****, and were held on with a ribbon.[6]:51,54-5[11] Fallopio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis.[12]

After this, the use of ***** coverings to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe. The first indication that these devices were used for birth control, rather than disease prevention, is the 1605 theological publication De iustitia et iure (On justice and law) by Catholic theologian Leonardus Lessius, who condemned them as immoral.[6]:56 In 1666, the English Birth Rate Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of "condons", the first documented use of that word (or any similar spelling).[6]:66-8

A condom made from animal intestine circa 1900.In addition to linen, condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and bladder. In the late 15th century, Dutch traders introduced condoms made from "fine leather" to Japan. Unlike the horn condoms used previously, these leather condoms covered the entire *****.[6]:61

From at least the 18th century, condom use was opposed in some legal, religious, and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today: condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy, which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections, while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity; and they are not used consistently due to inconvenience, expense, or loss of sensation.[6]:73,86-8,92

Despite some opposition, the condom market grew rapidly. In the 18th century, condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes, made from either linen treated with chemicals, or "skin" (bladder or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and lye).[6]:94-5 They were sold at pubs, barbershops, chemist shops, open-air markets, and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia.[6]:90-2,97,104 They later spread to America, although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes, due to both expense and lack of *** education.[6]:116-21

1800 through 1920s
The early nineteenth century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time. Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control. Feminists of this time period wanted birth control to be exclusively in the hands of women, and disapproved of male-controlled methods such as the condom.[6]:129,152-3 Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their unreliability (they were often riddled with holes, and often fell off or broke), but they discussed condoms as a good option for some, and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease.[6]:88,90,125,129-30

Many countries passed laws impeding the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives.[6]:144,163-4,168-71,193 In spite of these restrictions, condoms were promoted by traveling lecturers and in newspaper advertisements, using euphemisms in places where such ads were illegal.[6]:127,130-2,138,146-7 Instructions on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe.[6]:126,136 Despite social and legal opposition, at the end of the nineteenth century the condom was the Western world's most popular birth control method.[6]:173-4

During World War I, the U.S. military was the only one that did not promote condom use. Posters such as these were intended to promote abstinence.Beginning in the second half of the nineteenth century, American rates of sexually transmitted diseases skyrocketed. Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War, and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the Comstock laws.[6]:137-8,159 To fight the growing epidemic, *** education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time, teaching about venereal diseases and how they were transmitted. They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases.[6]:179-80 Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral watchdogs considered STDs to be punishment for sexual misbehavior. The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis.[6]:176

The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers, beginning in the later 1800s.[6]:169,181 Early twentieth century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases.[6]:180-3 During World War I, the United States and (at the beginning of the war only) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use.[6]:187-90

In the decades after World War I, there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe.[6]:208-10 Founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high. Freud was especially opposed to the condom because it cut down on sexual pleasure. Some feminists continued to oppose male-controlled contraceptives such as condoms. In 1920 the Church of England's Lambeth Conference condemned all "unnatural means of conception avoidance." London's Bishop Arthur Winnington-Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks, especially after weekends and holidays.[6]:211-2

However, European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection, even in countries where they were illegal for the general population.[6]:213-4 Through the 1920s, catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items, including condoms and cigarettes.[6]:197 Quality testing became more common, involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure.[6]:204,206,221-2 Worldwide, condom sales doubled in the 1920s.[6]:210

Rubber and manufacturing advances
The rubber vulcanization process was patented by Charles Goodyear in 1844.[13] The first rubber condom was produced in 1855.[14] For many decades, rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around *****-shaped molds, then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber.[6]:148 In 1912, a German named Julius Fromm developed a new, improved manufacturing technique for condoms: dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution.[14] Called cement dipping, this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid.[6]:200 Latex, rubber suspended in water, was invented in 1920. Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement-dipped rubber condoms, which had to be smoothed by rubbing and trimming. The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories. Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer: they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms, and had a shelf life of five years (compared to three months for rubber).[6]:199-200

Until the twenties, all condoms were individually hand-dipped by semiskilled workers. Throughout the decade of the 1920s, advances in the automation of the condom assembly line were made. The first fully automated line was patented in 1930. Major condom manufacturers bought or leased conveyor systems, and small manufacturers were driven out of business.[6]:201-3 The skin condom, now significantly more expensive than the latex variety, became restricted to a niche high-end market.[6]:220

1930 to present
In 1930 the Anglican Church's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples. In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement.[6]:227 The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical Casti Connubii affirming its opposition to all contraceptives, a stance it has never reversed.[6]:228-9

In the 1930s, legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed.[15][6]:216,226,234 During this period, two of the few places where condoms became more restricted were Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (limited sales as disease preventatives were still allowed).[6]:252,254-5 During the Depression, condom lines by Schmid gained in popularity. Schmid still used the cement-dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety. Firstly, cement-dipped condoms could be safely used with oil-based lubricants. Secondly, while less comfortable, these older-style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical, a valued feature in hard times.[6]:217-9 More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States.[6]:223-5

Throughout World War II, condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members, but also heavily promoted with films, posters, and lectures.[6]:236-8,259 European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war, even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941.[6]:252-4,257-8 In part because condoms were readily available, soldiers found a number of non-sexual uses for the devices, many of which continue to this day.

After the war, condom sales continued to grow. From 1955–1965, 42% of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control. In Britain from 1950–1960, 60% of married couples used condoms. The birth control pill became the world's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 début, but condoms remained a strong second. The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the "world population crises": by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone.[6]:267-9,272-5 (This number has grown in recent decades: in 2004, the government of India purchased 1.9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics.)[16]

In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations tightened,[17] and more legal barriers to condom use were removed.[6]:276-9 In Ireland, legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978.[6]:329-30 Advertising, however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions. In the late 1950s, the American National Association of Broadcasters banned condom advertisements from national television: this policy remained in place until 1979.[6]:273-4,285

After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection,[18] the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV. Despite opposition by some political, religious, and other figures, national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe.[6]:299,301,306-7,312-8 These campaigns increased condom use significantly.[6]:309-17

Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance, condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets, including in supermarkets and in discount department stores such as Wal-Mart.[6]:305 Condom sales increased every year until 1994, when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline.[6]:303-4 The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease preventatives has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue. Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America.[19][20] As one response, manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous.[6]:303-4 New developments continue to occur in the condom market, with the first polyurethane condom—branded Avanti and produced by the manufacturer of Durex—introduced in the 1990s,[6]:324-5 and the first custom sized-to-fit condom, called TheyFit, introduced in 2003.[21] Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow: one study predicted that developing nations would need 18.6 billion condoms in 2015.[6]:342 Condoms have become an integral part of modern societies.

Etymology and other terms
The term condom first appears in the early 18th century. Its etymology is unknown. In popular tradition, the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England's King Charles II, one "Dr. Condom" or "Earl of Condom". There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person, and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne.[6]:54,68

A variety of Latin etymologies have been proposed, including condon (receptacle),[22] condamina (house),[23] and cumdum (scabbard or case).[6]:70-1 It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word guantone, derived from guanto, meaning glove.[24] William E. Kruck wrote an article in 1981 concluding that, "As for the word 'condom', I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown, and there ends this search for an etymology."[25] Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as "unknown".[26]

Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms. In North America condoms are also commonly known as prophylactics, or rubbers. In Britain they may be called French letters.[27] Additionally, condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer's name.

Varieties
Most condoms have a reservoir tip or teat end, making it easier to accommodate the man's ejaculate. Condoms come in different sizes, from oversized to snug and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user's partner. Condoms are usually supplied with a lubricant coating to facilitate penetration, while flavored condoms are principally used for **** ***. As mentioned above, most condoms are made of latex, but polyurethane and lambskin condoms are also widely available.

Materials

Natural latex

An unrolled latex condomLatex has outstanding elastic properties: Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa, and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800% before breaking.[28] In 1990 the ISO set standards for condom production (ISO 4074, Natural latex rubber condoms), and the EU followed suit with its CEN standard (Directive 93/42/EEC concerning medical devices). Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electrical current. If the condom passes, it is rolled and packaged. In addition, a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing.[29]

Latex condoms used with oil-based lubricants such as vaseline are likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils.[30]

Synthetic
The most common non-latex condoms are made from polyurethane. Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials, such as AT-10 resin, and most recently polyisoprene.[31]

Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms, with most polyurethane condoms between 0.04 mm and 0.07 mm thick.[32] Polyurethane is also the material of many female condoms.

Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways: it conducts heat better than latex, is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light (and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life), can be used with oil-based lubricants, is less allergenic than latex, and does not have an odor.[33] Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention, and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes.[34]

However, polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones, and may be more likely to slip or break than latex,[33][35] and are more expensive.

Polyisoprene is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex. While significantly more expensive,[36] it has the advantages of latex (such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms)[31] without the protein which is responsible for latex allergies.[36]

Lambskin
Condoms made from sheep intestines, labeled "lambskin", are also available. They provide more sensation and are less allergenic than latex. However, there is an increased risk of transmitting STDs compared to latex because of pores in the material, which are thought to be large enough to allow infectious agents to pass through, albeit blocking the passage of sperm.[37] Lambskin condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types.

Spermicidal
Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol-9, a spermicidal chemical. According to Consumer Reports, spermicidally lubricated condoms have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy, have a shorter shelf life, and may cause urinary-tract infections in women.[38] In contrast, application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive efficacy of condoms.[39]

Nonoxynol-9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs (including HIV) but recent studies have shown that, with frequent use, nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission.[40] The World Health Organization says that spermicidally lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted. However, it recommends using a nonoxynol-9 lubricated condom over no condom at all.[41] As of 2005, nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol-9 and Planned Parenthood has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated.[42].

Female

Female condomMain article: Female condom
Female condoms have been available since 1988. They are larger and wider than male condoms but equivalent in length. They have a flexible ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the vagina. They also contain an inner ring which aids insertion and helps keep the condom from sliding out of the vagina during coitus. One line of female condoms is made from polyurethane or nitrile polymer. A competing manufacturer makes a line of female condoms out of latex. This latex version has a sponge at the closed end, which helps to anchor it inside the vagina.[43]

Textured
Textured condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners. The studs or ribs can be located on the inside, outside, or both; alternatively, they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g-spot or perineum. Many textured condoms which advertise "mutual pleasure" also are bulb-shaped at the top, to provide extra stimulation to the male.[44] Studded condoms should be avoided with **** intercourse as they can irritate and possibly tear the walls of the anus. Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms.

Other
A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis. These condoms are designed to maximize sperm life.

An anti-rape condom is worn by the female. It is designed to cause pain to the attacker, hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape.

Some condom-like devices are intended for entertainment only, such novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs.[45]

Effectiveness

In preventing pregnancy
See also: Comparison of birth control methods#Effectiveness of various methods
The effectiveness of condoms, as of most forms of contraception, can be assessed two ways. Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently. Actual use, or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users, including those who use condoms incorrectly or don't use condoms at every act of intercourse. Rates are generally presented for the first year of use.[5] Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates, but some studies use decrement tables.[46]:141

The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied, ranging from 10–18% per year.[47] The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2% per year.[5] Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception (such as spermicide) for greater protection.[39]

In preventing STDs

A giant condom on the Obelisk of Buenos Aires, Argentina, part of an awareness campaign for the 2005 World AIDS DaySee also: Safe ***
Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women. While not perfect, the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS, genital herpes, genital warts, syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and other diseases.[4]

According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health, correct and consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV/AIDS transmission by approximately 85% relative to risk when unprotected, putting the seroconversion rate (infection rate) at 0.9 per 100 person-years with condom, down from 6.7 per 100 person-years. The same review also found condom use significantly reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men.[48]

A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission for human papillomavirus by approximately 70%.[49] Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes simplex virus-2 also known as genital herpes, in both men and women.[50]

Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom. Infectious areas of the genitals, especially when symptoms are present, may not be covered by a condom, and as a result, some diseases can be transmitted by direct contact.[51] The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs, however, is inconsistent use.[29]

Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially precancerous cervical changes. Exposure to human papillomavirus,[52] even in individuals already infected with the virus, appears to increase the risk of precancerous changes. The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes. In addition, researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can aggravate existing cervical cancer, condom use during *** can prevent exposure to the hormone.[53]

Causes of failure
The Wikibook Sexual Health has a page on the topic of
Barrier Birth Control and Spermicide
Condoms may slip off the ***** after ejaculation,[54] break due to improper application or physical damage (such as tears caused when opening the package), or break or slip due to latex degradation (typically from usage past the expiration date, improper storage, or exposure to oils). The rate of breakage is between 0.4% and 2.3%, while the rate of slippage is between 0.6% and 1.3%.[48] Even if no breakage or slippage is observed, 1–2% of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom.[55][56] "Double bagging," using two condoms at once, also increases the risk of condom failure.[57][58]

Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure. If a failure occurs during application, the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins — such failures generally pose no risk to the user.[59] One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one-fifth that of unprotected intercourse.[60]

Standard condoms will fit almost any *****, although many condom manufacturers offer "snug" or "magnum" sizes. Some manufacturers also offer custom sized-to-fit condoms, with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation/comfort.[21][61][62] Some studies have associated larger *****es and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates (and vice versa), but other studies have been inconclusive.[30]

Experienced condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first-time users, although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure.[63] An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage.[64] A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage, but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage.[30]

Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control, pregnancy may occur when the user has *** without a condom. The person may have run out of condoms, or be traveling and not have a condom with them, or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to "take a chance." This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure (as opposed to method or perfect use failure).[65]

Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage. One motive is to have a child against a partner's wishes or consent.[66] Some commercial *** workers from Nigeria reported clients sabotaging condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use.[67] Using a fine needle to make several pinholes at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness.[56][46]:306-307

Prevalence
The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries. Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women, or women in informal unions. Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world: in that country, condoms account for almost 80% of contraceptive use by married women. On average, in developed countries, condoms are the most popular method of birth control: 28% of married contraceptive users rely on condoms. In the average less-developed country, condoms are less common: only 6-8% of married contraceptive users choose condoms.[68]

Condom use for disease prevention also varies. Among *** men in the United States, one survey found that 35% had used two condoms at the same time, a practice called "double bagging".[69] (While intended to provide extra protection, double bagging actually increases the risk of condom failure.)

Use

How to put on a condomMale condoms are usually packaged inside a foil wrapper, in a rolled-up form, and are designed to be applied to the tip of the ***** and then unrolled over the erect *****. It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device. After use, it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot, then disposed of in a trash receptacle.[7]

Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts ***, although others incorporate condom application as part of their foreplay. Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom dulls sensation. Advantages of dulled sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement.[4]

Role in *** education
Condoms are often used in *** education programs, because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly. A recent American Psychological Association (APA) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in *** education, saying "comprehensive sexuality education programs... discuss the appropriate use of condoms", and "promote condom use for those who are sexually active."[70]

In the United States, teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations.[71] Planned Parenthood, which advocates family planning and *** education, argues that no studies have shown abstinence-only programs to result in delayed intercourse, and cites surveys showing that 75% of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use.[72]

Infertility treatment
Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and intrauterine insemination (IUI) require collection of semen samples. These are most commonly obtained through ************, but an alternative to ************ is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse.

Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to ************, and some religions prohibit ************ entirely. Also, compared with samples obtained from ************, semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts, sperm motility, and percentage of sperm with normal morphology. For this reason, they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis, and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as intracervial or intrauterine insemination.[73] Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception, such as Catholicism, may use collection condoms with holes *****ed in them.[46]:306-307

Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of antisperm antibodies. The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner's semen will lower her level of antisperm antibodies, and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued. However, condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates.[74]

Other uses
Condoms excel as multipurpose containers because they are waterproof, elastic, durable, and will not arouse suspicion if found. Ongoing military utilization begun during World War II includes:

Tying a non-lubricated condom over the muzzle of the rifle barrel in order to prevent barrel fouling by keeping out detritus.[2]
The OSS used condoms for a plethora of applications, from storing corrosive fuel additives and wire garrotes (with the T-handles removed) to holding the acid component of a self-destructing film canister, to finding use in improvised explosives.[75]
Navy SEALs have used doubled condoms, sealed with neoprene cement, to protect non-electric firing assemblies for underwater demolitions—leading to the term "Dual Waterproof Firing Assemblies."[76]
Other uses of condoms include:

Covers for endovaginal ultrasound probes.[77] Covering the probe with a condom reduces the amount of blood and vaginal fluids that the technician must clean off between patients.
Condoms can be used to hold water in emergency survival situations.[78]
Condoms have also been used to smuggle cocaine and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs, tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the ******. These methods are very dangerous; if the condom breaks, the drugs inside can cause an overdose.[79]
In Soviet gulags, condoms were used to smuggle alcohol into the camps by prisoners who worked outside during daylight. While outside, the prisoner would ingest an empty condom attached to a thin piece of rubber tubing, the end of which was wedged between his teeth. The smuggler would then use a syringe to fill the tubing and condom with up to three liters of raw alcohol, which the prisoner would then smuggle back into the camp. When back in the barracks, the other prisoners would suspend him upside down until all the spirit had been drained out. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn records that the three liters of raw fluid would be diluted to make seven liters of crude vodka, and that although such prisoners risked an extremely painful and unpleasant death if the condom burst inside them, the rewards granted them by other prisoners encouraged them to run the risk.[80]
In his book entitled Last Chance to See, Douglas Adams reported having used a condom to protect a microphone he used to make an underwater recording. According to one of his traveling companions, this is standard BBC practice when a waterproof microphone is needed but cannot be procured.[1]
Condoms are used by engineers to keep soil samples dry during soil tests.[81]
Condoms are used in the field by engineers to initially protect sensoring equipment embedded in the steel or aluminum nose-cones of Cone Penetration Test (CPT) probes when entering the surface to conduct soil resistance tests to determine the bearing strength of soil.[82]
Condoms are used as a one-way valve by paramedics when performing a chest decompression in the field. The decompression needle is inserted through the condom, and inserted into the chest. The condom folds over the hub allowing air to exit the chest, but preventing it from entering.[83]

Debate and criticism

Disposal and environmental impact

Used condom thrown on the streetExperts, such as AVERT, recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle, as flushing them down the toilet may cause plumbing blockages and other problems.[7][84]

While biodegradable,[7] latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly. According to the Ocean Conservancy, condoms, along with certain other types of trash, cover the coral reefs and smother sea grass and other bottom dwellers. The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food.[85]

Condoms made of polyurethane, a plastic material, do not break down at all. The plastic and foil wrappers condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable. However, the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass.[7] Frequent condom or wrapper disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem.[86]

Position of the Roman Catholic Church
See also: Catholic teachings on sexual morality#Use of condoms
The Roman Catholic Church directly condemns any artificial birth control or sexual acts, aside from intercourse between married heterosexuals with the intention of a pregnancy.[87]

However, the use of condoms to combat STDs is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine, and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high-ranking Catholic authorities. A few, such as Belgian Cardinal Godfried Danneels, believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease, especially serious diseases such as AIDS.

To date, statements from the Vatican have argued that condom-promotion programs encourage promiscuity, thereby actually increasing STD transmission.[88] In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI asserted that handing out condoms is not the solution to combating AIDS and actually makes the problem worse. [89]

The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion.[90] This church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa,[91] but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial.[92]

Health issues
Dry dusting powders are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up. Previously, talc was used by most manufacturers, but cornstarch is currently the most popular dusting powder.[93] Talc is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity (i.e. via the vagina). Cornstarch is generally believed to be safe, however some researchers have raised concerns over its use.[93][94]

Nitrosamines, which are potentially carcinogenic in humans,[95] are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms.[96] A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1,000 to 10,000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low.[97] However, a 2004 study in Germany detected nitrosamines in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested, and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by 1.5- to 3-fold.[96][98]

Cultural factors
Cultural attitudes toward gender, contraception, and *** affect condom use and perceptions about condoms around the world. In less-developed countries and among less-educated populations, misperceptions about how disease transmission and conception work may negatively affect the use of condoms. In cultures with more traditional gender roles, women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms.

Latino immigrants in the United States often face barriers to condom use. A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of *** Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe *** due to traditional gender-role norms in the Latino community, and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners. Women who participated in the study often reported that their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the suggestion that they use condoms.[99] A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low-income African-American women; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion that condoms be used.[100]

A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University and published in the Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among black men is linked to rates of condom use; as conspiracy beliefs grew, consistent condom use dropped. Female use of condoms was not similarly affected.[101]

In Africa, condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti-condom campaigns by some Muslim[102] and Catholic clergy.[88] Some women in Africa believe that condoms are "for prostitutes" and that respectable women should not use them.[102] A few clergy even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV.[103]

Among the Massai in Tanzania, condom use is hampered by an aversion to "wasting" sperm, which is given sociocultural importance beyond reproduction. Sperm is believed to be an "elixir" to women and to have beneficial health effects. Massai women believe that, after conceiving a child, they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child's development. Frequent condom use is also considered by some Massai to cause impotence.[104]

In much of the Western world, the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use.[6]:267-9,272-5 In Japan, **** contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999, and even then access was more restricted than in other industrialized nations.[105] Perhaps because of this restricted access to hormonal contraception, Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world: in 2008, 80% of contracepting couples relied on condoms.[68]

Major manufacturers
See also: History of condoms#Major manufacturers
One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that "boggles the mind". Numerous small manufacturers, nonprofit groups, and government-run manufacturing plants exist around the world.[6]:322,328 Within the condom market, there are several major contributors, among them both for-profit businesses and philanthropic organizations. Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century.

Julius Schmid, Inc. was founded in 1882 and began the Shieks and Ramses brands of condoms.[6]:154-6 The London Rubber Company began manufacturing latex condoms in 1932, under the Durex brand.[6]:199,201,218 Both companies are now part of Seton Scholl Limited.[6]:327
Youngs Rubber Company, founded by Merle Youngs in late nineteenth century America, introduced the Trojan line of condoms[6]:191 now owned by Church and Dwight.[6]:323-4
Dunlop Rubber began manufacturing condoms in Australia in the 1890s. In 1905, Dunlop sold its condom-making equipment to one of its employees, Eric Ansell, who founded Ansell Rubber. In 1969, Ansell was sold back to Dunlop.[6]:327 In 1987, English business magnate Richard Branson contracted with Ansell to help in a campaign against HIV and AIDS. Ansell agreed to manufacture the Mates brand of condom, to be sold at little or no profit in order to encourage condom use. Branson soon sold the Mates brand to Ansell, with royalty payments made annually to the charity Virgin Unite.[6]:309,311[106] In addition to its Mates brand, Ansell currently manufactures Lifestyles for the U.S. market.[6]:333
In 1934 the Kokusia Rubber Company was founded in Japan. It is now known as the Okamoto Rubber Manufacturing Company.[6]:257
In 1970 Tim Black and Philip Harvey founded Population Planning Associates (now known as Adam & Eve). Population Planning Associates was a mail-order business that marketed condoms to American college students. Black and Harvey used the profits from their company to start a non-profit organization Population Services International,[6]:286-7,337-9 and Harvey later also founded another nonprofit company, DKT International, that annually sells millions of condoms at discounted rates in developing countries around the world.[6]:286-7,337-9

Research
See also: Male contraceptive
A spray-on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases. As of 2009, the spray-on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes.[107][108][109]

The Invisible Condom, developed at Université Laval in Québec, Canada, is a gel that hardens upon increased temperature after insertion into the vagina or ******. In the lab, it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes simplex virus. The barrier breaks down and liquefies after several hours. As of 2005, the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase, and has not yet been approved for use.[110]

Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an erectogenic compound. The drug-treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection, which should also help reduce slippage. If approved, the condom would be marketed under the Durex brand. As of 2007, it was still in clinical trials.[6]:345

See also
Condom machine
Spray-on condom

References
^ a b Carwardine, Mark; Adams, Douglas (1991). Last chance to see. [New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 0-517-58215-5.
^ a b Ambrose, Stephen E. (1994). D-Day, June 6, 1944: the climactic battle of World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-71359-0.
^ "Male Condom". Feminist Women's Health Center. October 18, 2007. http://www.fwhc.org/birth-control/condom.htm. Retrieved on 2007-11-19.
^ a b c "Condom". Planned Parenthood. 2008. http://www.plannedparenthood.o...rol/condom-10187.htm. Retrieved on 2007-11-19.
^ a b c Hatcher, RA; Trussel J, Nelson AL, et al. (2007). Contraceptive Technology (19th ed.). New York: Ardent Media. ISBN 1-59708-001-2. http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html. Retrieved on 2009-07-26.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt Collier, Aine (2007). The Humble Little Condom: A History. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-556-6.
^ a b c d e "Environmentally-friendly condom disposal". Go Ask Alice!. December 20, 2002. http://www.goaskalice.columbia.edu/2311.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-28.
^ Trujillo, Alfonso Cardinal López (2003-12-01). "Family Values Versus Safe ***". Pontifical Council for the Family. http://www.vatican.va/roman_cu...lo_en.html#Pregnancy. Retrieved on 2009-07-18.
^ Oriel, J.D. (1994). The Scars of Venus: A History of Venereology. London: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-19844-X.
^ Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs and Steel. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 210. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
^ "Special Topic: History of Condom Use". Population Action International. 2002.

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Cable
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Cable (disambiguation).

6" or 15cm outside diameter, oil-cooled cables, traversing the Grand Coulee Dam throughout. These cables are connected to powerful pumps that pump the oil through them while in operation. Safety switches turn off the oil flow in the event of a leak, in order to limit the effects of a hydrocarbon fire.
Fire test in Sweden, showing rapid fire spread through burning of cable jackets from one cable tray to another.
500MCM 1C Power Cable MarkingA cable is two or more wires or ropes running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided together to form a single assembly. In mechanics, cables are used for lifting and hauling; in electricity they are used to carry electrical currents. An optical cable contains one or more optical fibers in a protective jacket that supports the fibers. Mechanical cable is more specifically called wire rope.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Electrical cables
2.1 Cables and electromagnetic fields
2.2 Fire protection
2.3 Electrical cable types
2.3.1 Basic
2.3.2 Construction
2.3.3 Special
2.3.4 Market Information
3 Application
4 Cable manufacturers
5 Further reading
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit] History
Ropes made of multiple strands of natural fibers such as hemp, sisal, manila, and cotton have been used for millennia for hoisting and hauling. By the 19th century, deepening of mines and construction of large ships increased demand for stronger cables. Invention of improved steelmaking techniques made high quality steel available at lower cost, and so wire ropes became common in mining and other industrial applications. By the middle of the 19th century, manfacture of large submarine telegraph cables was done using machiners similar to that used for manufacture of mechanical cables.

In the 19th century and early 20th century, electrical cable was often insulated using cloth, rubber and paper. Plastic materials are generally used today, except for high reliability power cables.

[edit] Electrical cables
Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires. In this process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are more flexible than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be coated with a thin layer of another material: most often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold, and silver are much less prone to oxidisation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and makes soldering easier. Tight lays during stranding makes the cable extensible (CBA - as in telephone handset cords).

Cables can be securely fastened and organized, such as by using cable trees with the aid of cable ties or cable lacing. Continuous-flex or flexible cables used in moving applications within cable carriers can be secured using strain relief devices or cable ties. Copper corrodes easily and so should be layered with Lacquer.

At high frequencies, current tends to run along the surface of the conductor and avoid the core. This is known as the skin effect. It may change the relative desirability of solid versus stranded wires.

[edit] Cables and electromagnetic fields
Any current-carrying conductor, including a cable, radiates an electromagnetic field. Likewise, any conductor or cable will pick up energy from any existing electromagnetic field around it. These effects are often undesirable, in the first case amounting to unwanted transmission of energy which may adversely affect nearby equipment or other parts of the same piece of equipment; and in the second case, unwanted pickup of noise which may mask the desired signal being carried by the cable, or, if the cable is carrying power-supply or control voltages, pollute them to such an extent as to cause equipment malfunction.

Coaxial cable.
Twisted pair.The first solution to these problems is to keep cable lengths short, since pick up and transmission are essentially proportional to the length of the cable. The second solution is to route cables away from trouble. Beyond this, there are particular cable designs that minimise electromagnetic pickup and transmission. Three of the principal design techniques are shielding, coaxial geometry, and twisted-pair geometry.

Shielding makes use of the electrical principle of the Faraday cage. The cable is encased for its entire length in foil or wire mesh. All wires running inside this shielding layer will be to a large extent decoupled from external electric fields, particularly if the shield is connected to a point of constant voltage, such as ground. Simple shielding of this type is not greatly effective against low-frequency magnetic fields, however – such as magnetic "hum" from a nearby power transformer.

Coaxial design helps to further reduce low-frequency magnetic transmission and pickup. In this design the foil or mesh shield is perfectly tubular – ie., with a circular cross section – and the inner conductor (there can only be one) is situated exactly at its centre. This causes the voltages induced by a magnetic field between the shield and the core conductor to consist of two nearly equal magnitudes which cancel each other.

The twisted pair is a simple expedient where two wires of a cable, rather than running parallel to each other, are twisted around each other, forming a pair of intertwined helices. This can be achieved by putting one end of the pair in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Field cancellation between successive twists of the pair considerably reduces electromagnetic pickup and transmission.

Power-supply cables feeding sensitive electronic devices are sometimes fitted with a series-wired inductor called a choke which blocks high frequencies that may have been picked up by the cable, preventing them from passing into the device.

[edit] Fire protection
In building construction, electrical cable jacket material is a potential source of fuel for fires. To limit the spread of fire along cable jacketing, one may use cable coating materials or one may use cables with jacketing that is inherently fire retardant. The plastic covering on some metal clad cables may be stripped off at installation to reduce the fuel source for accidental fires. In Europe in particular, it is often customary to place inorganic wraps and boxes around cables in order to safeguard the adjacent areas from the potential fire threat associated with unprotected cable jacketing.

To provide fire protection to a cable, there are two methods:

a) Insulation material is deliberately added up with fire retardant materials

b) The copper conductor itself is covered with mineral insulations( MICC cables)

[edit] Electrical cable types
Basic cable types are as follows:

[edit] Basic
Coaxial cable
Multicore cable (consist of more than one wire and is covered by cable jacket)
Ribbon cable
Shielded cable
Single cable (from time to time this name is used for wire)
Twisted pair
Twisting cable

[edit] Construction
Based on construction and cable properties it can be sorted into the following:

Mineral-insulated copper-clad cable
Twinax cable
Flexible cables

[edit] Special
Arresting cable
Bowden cable
Heliax cable
Direct-buried cable
Heavy-lift cable
Elevator cable

[edit] Market Information
Integer Research Ltd
International Cable Makers Federation
Wire Association International

[edit] Application
Wire rope (wire cable)
Audiovisual cable
Bicycle cable
Communications cable
Computer cable
Mechanical cable
Sensing cable [1]
Submersible cable

[edit] Cable manufacturers
Some global producers of electrical wire and cable include (in alphabetical order): Belden, Cables RCT, Cords Cable Industries, Draka, Fujikura, Furukawa Electric, Hitachi Cable, Igus, Leoni, LS Cable, Marmon Group, Nexans, Pirelli, Prysmian, Southwire, Sumitomo Electric Industries, Tyco

[edit] Further reading
R. M. Black, The History of Electric Wires and Cables, Peter Pergrinus, London 1983 ISBN 0 86341 001 4

[edit] See also
Communications cable
Cable dressing
Cable harness
Cable lacing
Cable length
Cable reel
Cable tray
Circuit integrity
Cable management
Cable modem
Cable salad
Cable television
Category 5 cable
Category 6 cable
Category 7 cable
Look up cable in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

A 250V-16A electrical wire on a reelCross-linked polyethylene
DOCSIS
Electrical wiring
Extension cable
MF
Polyvinyl chloride
Portable cord
Power cable
Profibus
Submarine communications cable
Submarine power cable
Steel Wire Armoured (SWA) Cable
SY Control Cable
Tensile structure
International Cablemakers Federation

[edit] References
^ http://www.sensornet.co.uk/fil...detection%20-%20What's%20new%20in%20Process%20Technology%20April%2008.pdf Using fibre optic distributed temperature sensing

[edit] External links
Malaysia Cable Manufacturers Association
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
The European Confederation of National Associations of Manufacturers of Insulated Wire and Cable
Wire Cable Technical Information
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable"
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Prison Break
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Prison break)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about a television series. For the act of escaping prison, see prison escape.
Prison Break

Prison Break season 4 intertitle
Genre Drama
Serial drama
Thriller
Created by Paul Scheuring
Starring Dominic Purcell
Wentworth Miller
Robin Tunney
Peter Stormare
Amaury Nolasco
Marshall Allman
Wade Williams
Paul Adelstein
Robert Knepper
Rockmond Dunbar
Sarah Wayne Callies
William Fichtner
Chris Vance
Robert Wisdom
Danay Garcia
Jodi Lyn O'Keefe
Michael Rapaport
Country of origin United States
Language(s) English
Spanish
No. of seasons 4
No. of episodes 81 (List of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s) Marty Adelstein (2005-2009)
Neal H. Moritz (2005-2009)
Dawn Parouse (2005-2009)
Brett Ratner (2005-2009)
Paul Scheuring (2005-2009)
Matt Olmstead (2005-2009)
Kevin Hooks (2006-2009)
Michael Pavone (2005)
Location(s) Chicago, Illinois
Joliet, Illinois
Dallas, Texas
Los Angeles, California
Panama City, Panama
Miami, Florida
Maljamar, New Mexico
Running time Approx. 42 min.
Broadcast
Original channel FOX
Picture format 480i (SDTV)
720p (HDTV)
1080i (HDTV)
Audio format Dolby Digital with 5.1 channels
Original run August 29, 2005 – May 15, 2009
External links
Official website
Prison Break is a drama television series created by Paul Scheuring, which premiered on the Fox Broadcasting Company on August 29, 2005. The series revolves around two brothers; one has been sentenced to death for a crime he did not commit, and the other devises an elaborate plan to help his brother escape prison. The series was produced by Adelstein-Parouse Productions, in association with Original Television and 20th Century Fox Television. The current executive producers are head writer Scheuring, co-head writer Matt Olmstead, Kevin Hooks, Marty Adelstein, Dawn Parouse, Neal H. Moritz, and Brett Ratner.[1] The series' theme music, composed by Ramin Djawadi, was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2006.[2]

The series was originally turned down by Fox in 2003, which was concerned about the long-term prospects of such a series. Following the popularity of serialized prime time television series Lost and 24, Fox decided to back production in 2004. The first season received generally positive reviews,[3] and performed well in the ratings. The first season was originally planned for a 13-episode run, but was extended to include an extra nine episodes due to its popularity. Prison Break has been nominated for several industry awards, and won the 2006 People's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Drama. All four seasons have been released on DVD, while the first and third seasons have also been released on Blu-ray Disc. The series has been aired internationally, including in several non-English speaking countries.

The success of the series has inspired short videos for mobile phones, several official tie-ins in print and on the Internet, as well as a video game currently in development. A spin-off series, Prison Break: Proof of Innocence, has been produced exclusively for mobile phones. The series has spawned an official magazine and a book written in an in-universe perspective. The fourth season of Prison Break returned from its mid-season break in a new timeslot on April 17, 2009 for the series' last six episodes.[4] Two additional episodes, titled "The Old Ball and Chain" and "Free" were produced, and were later transformed into a standalone feature, titled The Final Break. The events of this feature take place before the last scene of the series finale, and are intended to wrap up "loose ends". The feature was released on DVD and Blu-ray July 21, 2009.[5]

Contents [hide]
1 Season synopsis
1.1 Season 1
1.2 Season 2
1.3 Season 3
1.4 Season 4
2 Cast and characters
3 Production
3.1 Conception
3.2 Filming
3.3 Music
3.4 Format
4 Response
4.1 Ratings and critical reception
4.2 Classification
4.3 Awards and nominations
4.4 Alleged copyright infringement
5 Distribution
5.1 Television
5.2 Home media
5.3 Online distribution
6 Other media
7 References
8 External links

[edit] Season synopsis
Main article: List of Prison Break episodes

[edit] Season 1
Main article: Prison Break (season 1)
The first season follows the rescue of Lincoln Burrows (Dominic Purcell), who is accused of murdering Terrence Steadman (Jeff Perry), the brother of the Vice President of the United States. Lincoln is sentenced to death and is incarcerated in Fox River State Penitentiary where he awaits his execution. Lincoln's brother, brilliant structural engineer Michael Scofield (Wentworth Miller), is convinced of Lincoln's innocence and formulates an escape plan. In order to gain access to Fox River, Michael commits armed robbery. Michael befriends the prison doctor Sara Tancredi (Sarah Wayne Callies) when he pretends to suffer from Type 1 diabetes, in order to gain daily access to the prison's infirmary. The brothers' fight to ward off the execution is aided by their lifelong friend Veronica Donovan (Robin Tunney), who begins to investigate the conspiracy that put Lincoln in jail. However, they are hindered by covert agents, members of an organization known as The Company. The Company was responsible for framing Lincoln, and they did so because of Lincoln's father, Aldo Burrows, and his former connections to the company. The brothers, along with six other inmates, Fernando Sucre (Amaury Nolasco), Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell (Robert Knepper), Benjamin Miles "C-Note" Franklin (Rockmond Dunbar), David "Tweener" Apolskis (Lane Garrison), John Abruzzi (Peter Stormare), and Charles "Haywire" Patoshik (Silas Weir Mitchell), who come to be known as the Fox River Eight, escape in the season finale.

[edit] Season 2
Main article: Prison Break (season 2)
The second season begins eight hours after the escape, focusing mainly on the escapees. Series creator Paul Scheuring describes the second season as "The Fugitive times eight" and likens it to the "second half of The Great Escape".[6] The fugitives split up and journey to locations across the country with the authorities close behind them as they each pursue their individual goals. Brad Bellick (Wade Williams) gets fired from the prison where he worked as a guard and chases after the inmates himself for the reward money. Several of the escapees reunite in search of a large cache of money buried long ago by another prisoner. Federal agent Alexander Mahone (William Fichtner) is assigned to track down and capture the eight fugitives, but is revealed to be working for The Company, which wants all eight men dead. When Sara discovers her dead father, Governor Frank Tancredi, she meets with Michael, remaining with him as the brothers try to bring down the current President, a Company member. To ensure the brothers' safety, Sara allows herself to be arrested and faces trial. During the trial, the testimony of former Secret Service agent Paul Kellerman, who used to work for the Company-controlled President, exonerates Lincoln and Sara. Several of the escapees are killed or recaptured, but the brothers make it to Panama. Michael, T-Bag, Mahone, and Bellick are arrested by the Panamanian authorities and imprisoned at the Penitenciaría Federal de Sona.

[edit] Season 3
Main article: Prison Break (season 3)
The third season follows both Michael inside Sona and Lincoln on the outside in Panama. Sona is a prison that has been run by the inmates and guarded only from the outside since a riot the year before. Burrows is quickly contacted by Gretchen Morgan (a Company operative who was in charge of operations in Panama) who kidnapped his son LJ (Marshall Allman) and Sara Tancredi (Sarah Wayne Callies), the woman Michael loves. He is told that The Company wants Scofield to break James Whistler (Chris Vance) out of Sona. The season follows Michael and Whistler's trials in formulating an escape plan, as Michael has to deal with extreme tension and as Lincoln deals with the Company's operative Gretchen Morgan (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe). Sucre gets a job at the prison to aid Michael in his escape plan. When Lincoln attempts to rescue Sara and LJ following a clue provided by Sara, Gretchen claims to have beheaded Sara and sends Lincoln a head in a box as a warning. As the season ends, the pair manage to escape along with Mahone, and another inmate McGrady leaving behind several accomplices including T-Bag and Bellick. Sucre's identity is discovered by a prison guard and is thrown into Sona just after the escape. LJ and Sofia (who was captured for a guarantee that Whistler would go with her) are traded for Whistler, and Michael seeks revenge against Gretchen for Sara's death.

[edit] Season 4
Main article: Prison Break (season 4)
The major storyline for the fourth season concerns a team recruited by Homeland Security agent Don Self (Michael Rapaport) to obtain Scylla. Although the team initially believes it to be the Company's "black book", it is later revealed to contain information on an advanced renewable power cell. Over the course of the first half of the season, the team obtain cards to access Scylla, and break into Company headquarters to steal. In the first half, Sara is discovered to be alive, Bellick is killed, and Self is revealed to be a double agent and sell Scylla to the highest bidder. Reluctantly, Lincoln decides to join the Company to get it back, while Michael suffers from a brain aneurysm. He is treated and operated on by the Company. He later learns that his mother, Christina is still alive and was an agent of the Company, who is revealed to acquire Scylla to sell to the highest bidder. Eventually, the series ends in Miami, where Scylla is recovered by Michael and the team, the General and the Company are taken down, and Christina is killed. In Prison Break: The Final Break, a story is told explaining what happened following the events of the last episode (before the four-year flash-forward) and the strange scar on Sara's shoulder. This story involves the incarceration of Sara in Miami-Dade county penitientiary due to budgetary cutbacks; there are cots installed there acting as the county jail. With the General and T-Bag in the adjacent Men's facility, the General wants Sara dead and offers a $100,000 bounty. Largely echoing season one, Sara is involved in common prison fare before Micheal hears of the bounty and plans are devised for her escape.

[edit] Cast and characters

Cast members Amaury Nolasco, Robert Knepper, Wade Williams, Sarah Wayne Callies, Wentworth Miller with executive producer Matt Olmstead.Main article: List of Prison Break characters
Prison Break maintains an ensemble cast for each season along with many recurring guest stars. The first season features a cast of ten actors who receive star billing, who were based in Chicago or at Fox River State Penitentiary.[7] The second season features a cast of nine actors who receive billing; three characters are downgraded from series regular to recurring status, another is upgraded, and a new character is introduced.[8] The third season introduces four new characters; two of whom are prisoners at Penitenciaría Federal de Sona.[9]

Most of the changes in the cast have been due to character deaths. Series creator, Paul Scheuring, explains that killing off major characters "makes the audience that much more fearful for our protagonists" and that "it actually does help us in terms of reducing story lines".[10] The two protagonists of the series, Lincoln Burrows and Michael Scofield, are the only characters to have appeared in every episode of the series.

Wentworth Miller as Michael Scofield (Season 1–4): Michael is Lincoln's brother and worked as a structural engineer before devoting full-time to his brother's case. In order to save his brother's life, Michael creates an elaborate plan to help his brother escape from prison. In an interview, Paul Scheuring recalled that most of the actors who tested for the role "would come in playing mysterious, but it was so cheesy and false."[11] A week before the start of production, Miller auditioned for the role and impressed Scheuring with his performance; he was cast the following day.[12]
Dominic Purcell as Lincoln Burrows (Season 1–4): Lincoln is a high school drop-out and a convicted felon, who is wrongfully accused of and charged with the murder of Terence Steadman, the brother of the Vice President of the United States. Purcell was cast three days before the start of production and consequently, he was the last actor to join the original cast.[12] He auditioned for the role while he had a recurring role as Tommy Ravetto on North Shore. Since working on John Doe, Purcell has had an amiable relationship with Fox. Hence, he was sent the pilot script of Prison Break.[13] Scheuring's first impression of Purcell did not convince him as a fit for the role since the actor went to the audition with his hair styled and a tan. However, Purcell's acting won the role. He arrived on the set on the first day of filming with a shaved head, which amazed Scheuring with the physical likeness of the series' two leading actors.[11]
Robin Tunney as Veronica Donovan (Season 1–2): Veronica is Michael and Lincoln's childhood friend who decides to review Lincoln's case at Michael's insistence. She becomes Lincoln's lawyer and appears as a major character in the first season.
Marshall Allman as Lincoln "L. J." Burrows Jr. (Season 1–4): L. J. is the teenage son of Lincoln Burrows and is greatly affected by his father's death sentence. He is forced into hiding after he becomes the target of the people who want Lincoln dead.
Amaury Nolasco as Fernando Sucre (Season 1–4): Sucre develops a friendship with Michael during time at Fox River State Penitentiary, where he was his cell-mate. He becomes Michael and Lincoln's ally, and provides comic relief to the show. His character's story focuses mainly on his wish to reunite with his girlfriend. Upon receiving the pilot script, Nolasco's first thought was that it was "one of those failed pilots that the network did not really want" since most of the series pilots would have started production by that time. Admitting that he does not like to read, Nolasco was amazed that the script was a "huge page-turner". Prior to his last audition for the role, Nolasco recalled his nervousness, which grew when Paul Scheuring told him that he was their favourite choice. Subsequently, he was cast in the role.[14]
Robert Knepper as Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell (Season 1–4): T-Bag appears in all four seasons of the series as a cunning, violent, and manipulative psychopath, consistently underestimated by those around him. T-Bag will stop at nothing to get what he wants and lets nothing stand in his way.
Peter Stormare as John Abruzzi (Season 1-2): Due to his role as the leader of a Chicago mafia, Abruzzi became a prominent figure at Fox River State Penitentiary. He agrees to provide an escape plane for Michael in exchange for the location of the eyewitness to his crimes, Otto Fibonacci. He appears regularly in the first half of the first season and makes selected appearances towards the end of the first season and the beginning of the second season.
Rockmond Dunbar as Benjamin Miles "C-Note" Franklin (Season 1–2, 4): Desperate for his family, C-Note blackmails Michael at Fox River to join his escape team. He appears in the series as a major character in the first and second seasons.
Wade Williams as Brad Bellick (Season 1–4): Appearing in all four seasons, Bellick was introduced as the captain of Fox River's correctional officers. After reading the pilot script, Williams initially did not want to portray the role of Bellick because the character was "horrible and despicable". His reluctance stemmed from being the father of a four-year-old daughter. However, his manager persuaded him to audition for the role and Williams landed the role of Bellick.[14]
Sarah Wayne Callies as Sara Tancredi (Season 1–2, 4): Sara is the prison doctor at Fox River and the daughter of Governor Frank Tancredi, who is linked into the plot that brings Lincoln to Fox River. She takes a liking to Michael and eventually aids his escape. She ultimately joins them on the run. Callies was the first actress the producers saw at the audition for the role of Sara Tancredi and was also the first to become a principal cast member.[12][15]
Paul Adelstein as Paul Kellerman (Season 1–2, 4): Kellerman was introduced as a Secret Service agent working for the Vice President to make sure that the execution of Lincoln Burrows goes smoothly. Eventually, his character changes from that of a villain to an ally to Michael and Lincoln. He appears as a major character in the first and second seasons.
William Fichtner as Alexander Mahone (Season 2–4): Introduced as an FBI agent in the second season, Mahone's assignment was to locate the fugitives. Mahone is intellectually matched with Michael and his background unfolds as the series progresses. In the third season he finds himself incarcerated with Michael in Sona and is eventually forced to become his ally through the final season.
Chris Vance as James Whistler (Season 3-4): Whistler is incarcerated in Sona for the murder of the Mayor's son and appears as a major character in the third season. He also stars in the first episode of the fourth season.
Robert Wisdom as Norman "Lechero" St. John (Season 3): Appearing as a major character in the third season, Lechero is a prisoner at Sona who rules the prison as a dictator and a Panamanian drug kingpin.
Danay Garcia as Sofia Lugo (Season 3-4): Sofia was introduced in the third season as Whistler's girlfriend, at the beginning of the fourth season it is revealed she has started to date Lincoln Burrows.
Jodi Lyn O'Keefe as Gretchen Morgan (Season 3–4): Introduced as "Susan B. Anthony", Gretchen is an operative for the company who is in charge of ensuring the escape of James Whistler.
Michael Rapaport as Donald Self (Season 4): Introduced in the fourth season, Self is a Department of Homeland Security special agent who teams up with the gang to take down The Company.

[edit] Production

[edit] Conception

The concept of the series was suggested to series creator Paul Scheuring by producer Dawn Parouse, who wanted to produce an action-oriented series.The original concept of Prison Break—a man deliberately getting himself sent to prison in order to help his brother escape—was suggested to Paul Scheuring by producer Dawn Parouse, who wanted to produce an action-oriented series. Although Scheuring thought it was a good idea, he was initially stumped as to why someone would embark on such a mission or how he could develop it into a viable television show. He came up with the story of the wrongfully accused brother, and began working on the plot outline and devising the characters. In 2003, he pitched the idea to the Fox Broadcasting Company but was turned down as Fox felt nervous about the long-term possibilities of such a series. He subsequently showed the concept to other channels but was also turned down as it was thought to be more suited for a film project than a television series.[13] Prison Break was later considered as a possible 14-part miniseries, which drew the interest of Steven Spielberg before his departure due to his involvement with War of the Worlds. Thus, the miniseries never materialized. Following the huge popularity of serialized prime time television series such as Lost and 24, Fox decided to back the production in 2004. The pilot episode was filmed a year after Scheuring wrote the script.[16]

[edit] Filming
The first three seasons of Prison Break were primarily filmed outside of Hollywood. The majority of the first season of the series was filmed on location in and around Chicago.[17] After it was closed down in 2002, Joliet Prison became the set of Prison Break in 2005, standing in as Fox River State Penitentiary on screen.[18] Scenes set in Lincoln's cell, the infirmary, and the prison yard were all shot on location at the prison.[19] Lincoln's cell was the same one in which serial killer John Wayne Gacy was incarcerated, which at least one member of the production crew refused to enter, because it was alleged to be haunted.[17][20] Other sets were built at the prison, including the cell blocks that housed the general prison population; these blocks had three tiers of cells (as opposed to the real cell block's two) and had cells much larger than real cells to allow more space for the actors and cameras.[19] Exterior scenes were filmed in areas around Chicago, Woodstock, and Joliet in Illinois. Other locations included O'Hare International Airport in Chicago and Toronto, Ontario in Canada. Prison Break spent $2 million per episode in the state of Illinois, which cost them a total of $24 million in 2005.[17]

Renewed for a second season, Prison Break resumed filming on June 15, 2006 in Dallas, Texas due to the close proximity of rural and urban settings.[21] Locations within a 30-minute radius of Dallas were chosen which included Little Elm, Decatur, and Mineral Wells.[22] Many of these locations were used to represent various American towns.[23] The show was expected to spend in excess of $50 million in Texas over the course of the second season.[6] For the final three episodes of the second season, filming took place in Pensacola, Florida to represent Panama.[24] Each episode took eight days to film and approximately $1.4 million went to the local economy per episode.[25] The third season was shot in Dallas and had a budget of $3 million per episode.[26] Several of the exterior scenes with Lincoln and Gretchen negotiating the escape from the Panama jail were shot in the Casco Viejo quarter of Panama City.[27] The principal photography for the fourth season was relocated to Los Angeles, California.[28]

[edit] Music
The theme music of Prison Break and the incidental music of each episode was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The score for the first two seasons is featured in the Prison Break: Original Television Soundtrack, which was released on August 28, 2007.[29] Djawadi and Ferry Corsten produced a remix of the theme music entitled "Prison Break Theme (Ferry Corsten Breakout Mix)" as a single, which was released by Fox Music in 2006. In Europe, rapper Faf Larage's song "Pas le temps" is used by television network M6 in France to replace the show's original theme music in the title sequence, which generated publicity and helped to localize the show.[30] Similarly, "Ich glaub' an Dich (Prison Break Anthem)" (performed by Azad and Adel Tawil) and "Over the Rainbow" (performed by Leki) are used in the title sequence in Germany and Belgium respectively. After the ending of the fourth season of the show, on June 2, 2009 a separate soundtrack disc was released for the third and fourth seasons.

[edit] Format
Prison Break features a serialized story structure, similar to that of its first season companion show 24. In November 2008, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Fox had ordered two extra episodes of the current fourth season, which may serve as a two-hour series finale in 2009. There was some speculation that a pre-determined end-date had been set for Prison Break, similar to Lost.[31] At the 2009 TV Critics Press Tour, Kevin Reilly told reporters that the series would end with the fourth season. Despite decreasing ratings, Reilly attributed the cancellation to creativity: "The show has just played out. You get to a point creatively where you feel all the stories have been told, and you want to end strong and not gimp out in the end of the season."[32] Regarding the finale, Reilly stated, "They have a really cool ending, actually. I know where they end, and it's a hell of an idea."[32]

On October 24, 2007, The Hollywood Reporter reported that a spin off was under development, tentatively titled Prison Break: Cherry Hill. The series was to revolve around an upper-middle-class housewife, Molly, and her stint in a women's prison.[33] However, the producers' original idea to introduce Molly in the third season of Prison Break was later dropped due to the writers' strike. The new series would instead begin under the Prison Break brand similar to CSI: Miami and CSI: NY.[34]

[edit] Response

[edit] Ratings and critical reception
The following seasonal rankings are based on a weighted average total viewers per episode as recorded by Nielsen Media Research. The recording period begins in late September (the start of the U.S. network television season) and ends in late May.

Season Broadcast period Timeslot Ranking Average viewers (in millions)
1 2005–2006 Monday 9:00 pm ET
(8:00 pm ET midseason) #55 9.2[35]
2 2006–2007 Monday 8:00 pm ET #51 9.3[36]
3 2007–2008 Monday 8:00 pm ET #73 8.2[37]
4 2008–2009 Monday 9:00 pm ET
Friday 8:00 pm ET (mid-season) #86 5.3[38]

The show debuted on August 29, 2005 to an estimated audience of 10.5 million viewers. Fox had not seen such success for summertime Monday numbers since Melrose Place and Ally McBeal aired in September 1998. The two-hour premiere was credited as two episodes by the network.[39] The premiere was ranked first in both the 18-49 and 18-34 demographics.[40] The strong debut performance was also matched by various positive reviews. According to The New York Times, Prison Break was "more intriguing than most of the new network series, and it certainly is one of the most original", complimenting its ability to create a "suspenseful thriller" and its "authentic look".[41] Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly dubbed it as one of the best new shows of 2005.[42] On the other hand, The Washington Post criticized the show for its "somber pretentiousness" and "uniformly overwrought" performances.[43] Due to its ratings success, Fox decided to extend Prison Break by an extra nine episodes, making it the first new series in the 2005-2006 television season to receive a full season order of 22 episodes.[44] The series averaged 9.2 million viewers per week in its first season.[35]

The premiere of the second season of Prison Break obtained an average of 9.4 million viewers.[45] The decline was steeper among young-adult viewers with a decrease of 20% in the 18-49 demographic compared to its series premiere, but its household rating grew from 3.6% to 3.9% during the last half hour.[46] Robert Bianco of USA Today commented on the "harebrained absurdities that have swamped this show", and blamed the writers for being "incredibly lazy" for the continuous use of the tattoo as an "all-purpose plot fix".[47] Contrastingly, Detroit Free Press commended the second season premiere on matching the standard set by the first season, which delivered a "rocking good entertainment" due to its "motley crew of cellblock characters" and the "taut, ingenious storytelling of series creator Paul T. Scheuring and his staff."[48] The second season obtained its largest audience on the original airdate of the episode, "Chicago" with an average of 10.1 million viewers.[49] Overall, the second season averaged 9.3 million viewers per week.[36]

[edit] Classification
Due to its storyline and setting, Prison Break's target audience is the 18–34 age group. The show contains adult content including violence, coarse language, as well as sexual and drug references. Concerns were raised by the Parents Television Council in the United States about the time slot in which Prison Break was broadcasted (8:00 pm ET) since the show features some scenes which contain graphic content.[50] The series is given a TV-14 rating in both the United States and Canada. A similar rating is also used in other countries. Prison Break is rated MA15+ in Australia and New Zealand, A+18 in Chile, PG in Hong Kong, 18PL in Malaysia, 12 in The Netherlands, PG13V in South Africa, 15 in the United Kingdom for the DVD release, and a PS rating in the Republic of Ireland. In France, the broadcasting watchdog, Conseil Supérieur de l'Audiovisuel (CSA), also complained that the violence in some episodes exceeded the amount allowed for its rating, which is "not for under 10s". Under France's regulations, any higher ratings would move the show away from its current primetime timeslot to a later timeslot. However, their decision to change the rating will only affect the first season, which has already been broadcast, and not the second season.[51] To keep the original timeslot, French broadcasters M6 used censorship on the most violent scenes for the second season and also produced a disclaimer before airing each episode in primetime. In Greece, the first season of the show was broadcast with the rating "Necessary Parental Advice", while the second season is broadcast with the rating "Optional Parental Advice", concerning the official classification of television programs in Greece for the protection of viewers.

[edit] Awards and nominations
Main article: List of Prison Break awards and nominations
Following a successful airing of the series' first thirteen episodes, Prison Break was nominated for its first award, the 2005 People's Choice Award for Favorite New TV Drama. The series won the award in January 2006, beating other nominees in the same category, Commander in Chief and Criminal Minds.[52] In January 2006, the show had two nominations at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards, which were Best Drama Television Series and Best Actor in a Drama Television Series for Wentworth Miller's performance.[53] The show's lead actor, Wentworth Miller, received another nomination for his performance in the first season at the 2005 Saturn Awards for Best Actor on Television. Likewise, the series was nominated for 2005 Saturn Award for Best Network Television Series.[54] At the 2006 Television Critics Association Awards, the show was nominated for Best New Drama Series.[55] Nominations for technical awards include the 2006 Eddie Award for Best Edited One-Hour Series for Commercial Television (Mark Helfrich for the pilot episode),[56] and the 2006 Primetime Emmy award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music (Ramin Djawadi).[57] In December 2006, Robert Knepper was nominated for the 2006 Satellite Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television.[58]

[edit] Alleged copyright infringement
On October 24, 2006, the Associated Press reported that Donald and Robert Hughes filed a lawsuit against Fox Broadcasting Company and the show's executive producer and creator, Paul Scheuring, for copyright infringement, seeking unspecified damages and other costs. They claimed that in 2001, they had sent Fox their manuscript which was based on their own experiences of a prison break at a juvenile facility. In the 1960s, Donald Hughes planned and successfully executed a prison escape for his brother, Robert Hughes, who was wrongfully incarcerated.[59][60]

[edit] Distribution

[edit] Television
In Canada, Prison Break is broadcast on Global one hour before it airs on Fox, except in the Maritimes where it airs two hours before Fox's airing. Prison Break was the only new television series to be positioned in the top twenty television shows of 2005-2006 in Canada, achieving an average of 876,000 viewers in the key demographic of 18–49 and 1.4 million viewers nationally for its first season.[61] Prison Break premiered on Australian television network Seven on February 1, 2006 to an average audience of 1.94 million.[62] The first season attracted an overall average of 1.353 million viewers.[63] In New Zealand, Prison Break won the People's Choice Award for Favourite New Television Drama.[64] After decreasing ratings throughout the second season, Seven decided to fast-track the airing of the third season episodes;[65] however, ratings continued to decrease.[66]

The first and second seasons premiered in the UK on Five for the first season, then subsequently replayed on UKTV Gold before the second season debuted on Five. Prior to the start of the third season, Sky One acquired the rights to broadcast Prison Break, paying £500,000 per episode.[67] The series premiered in France on August 31, 2006 with an average of 5.5 million viewers.[68] The second season premiered on September 13, 2007 to 5.3 million viewers.[69] The first season's broadcast in Hong Kong on TVB Pearl received the largest audience in the country for a foreign drama. The series premiere obtained an average of 260,000 viewers while the first season finale obtained an average of 470,000 viewers.[70] The second season's premiere received an average of 270,000 viewers.[71]

[edit] Home media
DVDs Episodes[72] Discs Release dates
Region 1 Region 2 Region 4
Season One 22 6 August 8, 2006[73] September 18, 2006[74] September 13, 2006[75]
Season Two 22 6 September 4, 2007[76] August 20, 2007[77] September 17, 2007[78]
Season Three 13 4 August 12, 2008[79] May 19, 2008[80] December 3, 2008[81]
Season Four 24 6/7 June 2, 2009 July 6, 2009[82] July 15, 2009[83]

The DVD and Blu-ray Disc sets of each season are released after their television broadcast and are available in various regions. At the 2006 International Consumer Electronics Show, 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment announced that the complete first season of Prison Break was to be released on Blu-ray in early 2007.[84] The release date was later announced to be November 13, 2007 and Prison Break became the first television show to be released on Blu-ray Disc by Fox. The Blu-ray box set contains six discs and includes all the DVD box set's special features.[85] A DVD set containing the first three seasons was released on May 19, 2008 in Region 2.[86] In Australia, and possibly all other regions, Prison Break Season 4 will be released, along with Prison Break: The Final Break, and is being promoted as a seven-disc set which includes the television movie finale.[87]

[edit] Online distribution
In addition to the television broadcast of the show, episodes of Prison Break have also been released on the Internet. Towards the end of the first season, episodes of Prison Break were made available for purchase online at the iTunes Store, which began on May 9, 2006. After the premiere of the second season of Prison Break, Fox began allowing online streaming of the current episode for free via more than 50 websites including AOL, Google, and Yahoo!, as well as its own extensive network. However, this was restricted to the United States only. The first three episodes of the second season were broadcast commercial free, available for a week after their television broadcast date.[88] Online streaming of episodes was postponed after the third episode. However, due to the show's three-week broadcast hiatus prompted by Fox's broadcast of the Major League Baseball playoff games in October, a strategy was developed by News Corporation (the parent company of Fox Broadcasting Company and MySpace) in an attempt to maintain their viewers' interest in the show. Starting from October, Fox began to stream past episodes of the second season on the social networking site MySpace and websites of the network's owned and operated stations (the stations are part of the Fox Television Stations Group). Although commercials were aired throughout the broadcast, the episodes were free of charge.[89]

[edit] Other media
A spin-off series, Prison Break: Proof of Innocence, was produced exclusively for mobile phones and was broadcast first to Sprint customers in April 2006 via on SprintTV's Fox station. The first episode of Proof of Innocence became available on the Internet for viewing on May 8, 2006. This was an exclusive deal made between Toyota Motor and News Corporation's Fox network, allowing Toyota to sponsor exclusive content of the show and to obtain advertising exclusivity.[90] During the show's third season, a series of six online shorts, collectively known as Prison Break: Visitations, were made exclusively for Fox. They feature the characters Lechero, Sammy, McGrady, T-Bag, and Bellick. They were distributed on the Internet and are available for free from iTunes.

In printed media, the show's tie-in products include an official magazine and a book written in an in-universe perspective. The official magazine, published by Titan Publishing, was launched on November 21, 2006. Each issue contains interviews with selected cast and crew members with other feature stories. The tie-in novel, Prison Break: The Classified FBI Files (ISBN 1-4165-3845-3), contains details of the show's characters pertaining to the second season's storyline. Written by Paul Ruditis, the book is published by Simon & Schuster and was released on May 8, 2007.[91] There is also a live feature called "Prison Break LIVE!", created by The Sudden Impact! Entertainment Company, which is an interactive experience aimed at bringing to life the atmosphere from the television series. The attraction toured the US, Australia, UK, China, Germany and Mexico from 2006 to 2008.[92] A video game based on Prison Break was in development for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 for release in February 2009, but was canceled when the company shut down.[93][94] Development restarted when the game's developer, Zootfly, found a new publisher for a fall release date.[95]According to some sources, the game has a tentative release date of September 30th, 2009, however this seems highly unlikely as there has yet to be any promotional ads shown or any details released.

[edit] References
^ "Prison Break show info". Fox Broadcasting Company. http://www.fox.com/prisonbreak/showinfo/. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ "The 58th Primetime Emmy Awards and Creative Arts Emmys Nominations". Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. http://cdn.emmys.tv/downloads/...ys/PrimetimeNoms.php. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ "Prison Break (Fox)". Metacritic. http://www.metacritic.com/tv/s...eak?q=prison%20break. Retrieved on 10 December 2008.
^ Fernandez, Maria Elena (14 January 2009). "Fox's Kevin Reilly says it's ready to set 'Prison Break' free". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/20...nment/et-presstour14. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ "Prison Break Post-Finale on the Way to Blu-ray". Los Angeles Times. 14 January 2009. http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=2576. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ a b Dallas Film Commission (15 May 2006). "Dallas Welcomes Hit Television Series". Press release. http://www.dallascvb.com/media...id=127&category=5374. Retrieved on 17 January 2007.
^ "Prison Break: Season 1". IGN. http://tv.ign.com/objects/825/825147.html. Retrieved on December 22, 2008.
^ "Prison Break: Season 2". IGN. http://tv.ign.com/objects/846/846853.html. Retrieved on December 22, 2008.
^ "Prison Break: Season 3". IGN. http://tv.ign.com/objects/895/895366.html. Retrieved on December 22, 2008.
^ Wyatt, Edward (20 August 2006). "In Prison Break, an Actor's Job Is Never Safe". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08...c=rss&pagewanted=all. Retrieved on 13 September 2007.
^ a b "Prison Break success shocks creator". The Sydney Morning Herald. Australian Associated Press. 27 January 2006. http://www.smh.com.au/news/tv-...ullpage#contentSwap2. Retrieved on 19 May 2007.
^ a b c Mitovich, Matt Webb (8 August 2006). "Prison Break DVD News, Season 2 Preview!". TV Guide. http://www.tvguide.com/news/Pr...Break-DVD-38536.aspx. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
^ a b Goldman, Eric (13 March 2007). "Paley Fest: Prison Break". IGN. http://tv.ign.com/articles/772/772555p1.html. Retrieved on 23 March 2007.
^ a b "Prison Break Scoop Direct from the 2007 Paley Festival". TheTVAddict.com. 10 March 2007. http://thetvaddict.com/2007/03...2007-paley-festival/. Retrieved on 19 May 2007.
^ Prison Break Season 1 DVD, (2006), audio commentary from episode "Riots, Drills and the Devil (Part 1)".
^ "Into the heart of darkness". The Age. January 26, 2006. http://www.theage.com.au/news/...4/1138066797049.html. Retrieved on 19 July 2009.
^ a b c Ryan, Maureen (24 August 2005). "Joliet prison is a 'Break'-out star". The Chicago Tribune. http://featuresblogs.chicagotr...joliet_prison_i.html. Retrieved on 5 December 2005.
^ Idato, Michael (1 February 2006). "Inside Prison Break: Chain male". The Sydney Morning Herald. http://www.smh.com.au/news/tv-...ullpage#contentSwap1. Retrieved on 10 October 2006.
^ a b Zoromski, Brian (17 March 2006). "Set Visit: Prison Break". IGN. http://filmforce.ign.com/articles/696/696707p1.html. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ Downie, Stephen (7 February 2007). "Making a run for it". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.news.com.au/dailyte...5974-5006014,00.html. Retrieved on 15 January 2009.
^ "New 'Prison Break' to be filmed in Dallas". MSN. The Associated Press. 15 May 2006. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/200...cle.aspx?news=223366. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
^ Morrison, Lacie (14 September 2006). "A major production". Mineral Wells Index. Archived from the original on 1 November 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/200...ord=leadpicturestory. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
^ Ryan, Maureen (18 August 2006). "Getting out was the easy part: Season 2 of 'Prison Break'". The Chicago Tribune. http://featuresblogs.chicagotr...getting_out_was.html. Retrieved on 15 September 2006.
^ Moon, T. (11 March 2007). "'Prison Break' hits beach". Pensacola News Journal. Archived from the original on 14 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/200...0311/NEWS01/70311006. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
^ Sayres, Scott (12 February 2007). "Incentives Would Draw More Film, TV Productions". FOX 4 News. http://www.myfoxdfw.com/myfox/...de=TSTY&pageId=3.2.1. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ Weatherford, Angela (13 December 2007). "A little bit of Hollywood". Athens Review. http://www.athensreview.com/lo...story_347090054.html. Retrieved on 14 December 2007.
^ "Panama 'shaken, not stirred' by shooting of Bond flick". Screen. 9 February 2008. http://www.screenindia.com/old...php?content_id=18890. Retrieved on 10 December 2008.
^ Pergament, Alan (29 July 2008). "Television series is a working vacation for actor from Cheektowaga". The Buffalo News. http://www.buffalonews.com/ent...tv/story/402310.html. Retrieved on 7 December 2008.
^ "Prison Break (Original Television Soundtrack)". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000UAEB8W. Retrieved on 13 December 2007.
^ McDowell, Jeanne (17 October 2006). "Helping TV Hits Translate Overseas". Time. http://www.time.com/time/arts/...8599,1547027,00.html. Retrieved on 12 November 2006.
^ Andreeva, Nellie (13 November 2008). "'Prison' break may be on the way". The Hollywood Reporter. http://www.hollywoodreporter.c...be09d144c69c15574339. Retrieved on 17 November 2008.
^ a b Dos Santos, Kristin (January 14, 2008). "Prison Break Is Ending". E!. http://www.eonline.com/uberblo...on_break_ending.html. Retrieved on 14 January 2009.
^ Andreeva, Nellie (24 October 2007). "Fox eyes break for women's 'Prison'". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/200...ce8edda14f728d28c1e8. Retrieved on 18 January 2009.
^ Fickett, Travis (15 July 2008). "Prison Break Spin-Off Details". IGN. http://tv.ign.com/articles/890/890208p1.html. Retrieved on 18 January 2009.
^ a b "Series". The Hollywood Reporter. 26 May 2006. http://www.hollywoodreporter.c...ontent_id=1002576393. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ a b "2006-07 Primetime Wrap". The Hollywood Reporter. 25 May 2007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/200...66ad8d9a71cad261604f. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ Van De Kamp, Justin (1 June 2008). "TV Ratings: 2007-2008 Season Top-200". Televisionista.com. http://televisionista.blogspot...-season-top-200.html. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.
^ "Season Program Rankings (Through 12/7)". American Broadcasting Company (ABC) Medianet. 9 December 2008. http://abcmedianet.com/web/dnr...NR.aspx?id=120908_05. Retrieved on 10 December 2008.
^ "'Prison' Breaks Strong for FOX". Zap2it.com. 30 August 2005. http://tv.zap2it.com/tveditori...97287%7C1%7C,00.html. Retrieved on 17 February 2006.
^ Kissell, Rick (7 September 2005). "Everyone's watching Post-Katrina coverage". Variety. http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117928712.html. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
^ Stanley, Alessandra (29 August 2005). "Jailhouse Heroes Are Hard to Find". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08...levision/29stan.html. Retrieved on 17 January 2009.
^ Flynn, Gillian (21 April 2006). "TV Review: Prison Break (2005)". Entertainment Weekly.

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Lizard
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Lizard (disambiguation).
Lizards
Fossil range: 199–0 Ma PreЄЄOSDCPTJKPgNJurassic- Present

Central bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukarya

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Superclass: Tetrapoda

Class: Reptilia

Order: Squamata

Suborder: Lacertilia*
Günther, 1867

Families
Many, see text.

Lizards are a very large and widespread group of squamate reptiles, with nearly 5,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica as well as most oceanic island chains. The group, traditionally recognized as the suborder Lacertilia, is defined as all extant members of the Lepidosauria (reptiles with overlapping scales) which are neither sphenodonts (i.e., Tuatara) nor snakes. While the snakes are recognized as falling phylogenetically within the anguimorph lizards from which they evolved, the sphenodonts are the sister group to the squamates, the larger monophyletic group which includes both the lizards and the snakes.

Lizards typically have limbs and external ears, while snakes lack both these characteristics. However, because they are defined negatively as excluding snakes, lizards have no unique distinguishing characteristic as a group. Lizards and snakes share a movable quadrate bone, distinguishing them from the sphenodonts which have a more primitive and solid diapsid skull. Many lizards can detach their tails in order to escape from predators, an act called autotomy, but this trait is not universal. Vision, including color vision, is particularly well developed in most lizards, and most communicate with body language or bright colors on their bodies as well as with pheromones. The adult length of species within the suborder ranges from a few centimeters for some chameleons and geckos to nearly three meters (9 feet, 6 inches) in the case of the largest living varanid lizard, the Komodo Dragon. Some extinct varanids reached great size. The extinct aquatic mosasaurs reached 17.5 meters, and the giant monitor Megalania prisca is estimated to have reached perhaps seven meters.

Contents [hide]
1 Physiology
2 Evolution and relationships
2.1 Lizard diversification
2.1.1 Iguania
2.1.2 Gekkota
3 Relationship with humans
4 Classification
5 References

[edit] Physiology

A feral Jackson's Chameleon from a population introduced to Hawaii in the 1970s.Sight is quite important for most lizards, both for locating prey and for communication, and as such, many lizards have highly acute color vision. Most lizards rely heavily on body language, using specific postures, gestures and movements to define territory, resolve disputes, and entice mates. Some species of lizard also utilize bright colors, such as the iridescent patches on the belly of Sceloporus. These colors would be highly visible to predators, so are often hidden on the underside or between scales and only revealed when necessary.

A particular innovation in this respect is the dewlap, a brightly colored patch of skin on the throat, usually hidden between scales. When a display is needed, the lizards erect the hyoid bone of their throat, resulting in a large vertical flap of brightly colored skin beneath the head which can be then used for communication. Anoles are particularly famous for this display, with each species having specific colors, including patterns only visible under ultraviolet light, as lizards can often see UV.

[edit] Evolution and relationships

The fossil mosasaur Prognathodon, a varanid.The retention of the basic 'reptilian' amniote body form by lizards makes it tempting to assume any similar animal, alive or extinct, is also a lizard. However, this is not the case, and lizards as squamates are part of a well-defined group.

The earliest "lizard" was superficially lizard-like, but had a solid, box-like skull, with openings only for eyes, nostrils, etc (termed Anapsid). Turtles retain this skull form. Early anapsids later gave rise to two new groups with additional holes in the skull to make room for and anchor larger jaw muscles. Those with a single hole, the Synapsids, gave rise to the superficially lizard-like Pelycosaurs which include Dimetrodon and the Therapsids, including the Cynodonts, from which would evolve the modern mammals.

The Diapsids, possessing one temporal fenestra before the eye and one behind it, continued to diversify. One branch, the Archosaurs, retained the basic Diapsid skull, and gave rise to a bewildering array of animals, most famous being the crocodilians, the pterosaurs, the dinosaurs and their descendants, birds. The Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs radiated from the same basal Diapsid group.

The smaller Lepidosaurs which would give rise to the lizards began to reduce the skull bones, making the skull lighter and more flexible. The modern Tuatara retains the basic Lepidosaur skull, distinguishing it from true lizards in spite of superficial similarities. Squamates, including snakes and all true lizards, further lightened the skull by eliminating the lower margin of the lower skull opening.

[edit] Lizard diversification
Within the Lacertilia are found four generally recognized suborders, Iguania, Gekkota, Amphisbaenia and Autarchoglossa, with the "blind skinks" in the family Dibamidae having an uncertain position. While traditionally excluded from the lizards, the snakes are usually classified as a clade with a similar subordinal rank.[1]

[edit] Iguania

Anoles mating, Gainesville, FLThe suborder Iguania, found in Africa, south Asia, Australia, the New World, and with iguanas colonizing the islands of the west Pacific, form the sister group to the remainder of the squamata. They are largely arboreal, and have primitively fleshy, non-prehensile tongues, but this condition is obviously highly modified in the chameleons. This clade includes the following families:

Family Agamidae – Agamid Lizards, Old World Arboreal Lizards
Family Chamaeleonidae – Chameleons
Family Corytophanidae – Helmet Lizards
Family Crotaphytidae – Collared Lizards, Leopard Lizards
Family Hoplocercidae – Dwarf and Spiny Tail Iguanas
Family Iguanidae – American Arboreal Lizards, Chuckwallas, Iguanas, Iguanids
Family Opluridae – Malagasy Iguanas
Family Phrynosomatidae – North American Spiny Lizards
Family Polychrotidae – Anoles and kin
Family Tropiduridae – Tropidurid Lizards

[edit] Gekkota
Active hunters, the Gekkota includes three families comprising the distinctive cosmopolitan geckos and the legless flap-footed lizards of Australia and New Zealand. Like snakes, the geckos and the flap-footed lizards lack eyelids. Unlike snakes, they use their tongues to clean their often highly developed eyes. While gecko feet have unique surfaces which allow them to cling to glass and run on ceilings, the flapfoot has lost its limbs. The three families of this suborder are:

Family Eublepharidae – Eublepharid Geckos
Family Gekkonidae – Geckos
Family Pygopodidae – Flap-footed Lizards

[edit] Relationship with humans

Komodo dragons on RincaMost lizard species are harmless to humans. Only the very largest lizard species pose threat of death; the Komodo dragon, for example, has been known to stalk, attack, and kill humans. The venom of the Gila monster and beaded lizard is not usually deadly but they can inflict extremely painful bites due to powerful jaws. Numerous species of lizards are kept as pets.

Lizard symbolism plays important, though rarely predominant roles in some cultures (e.g. Tarrotarro in Australian Aboriginal mythology). The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped animals and often depicted lizards in their art.[2] According to a popular legend in Maharashtra, a Common Indian Monitor, with ropes attached, was used to scale the walls of the Sinhagad fort in the Battle of Sinhagad.[3]

Green iguanas (Iguana iguana), are popular exotic petsGreen Iguanas are eaten in Central America and Uromastyx in Africa and India. In North Africa, Uromastyx are considered dhaab or 'fish of the desert' and eaten by nomadic tribes.[4] In India too, these lizards are caught for their meat, about which Malcolm Smith says ..with certain castes of Hindoos it is a regular article of diet..the meat is said to be excellent and white like chicken...the head and feet are not eaten, but the tail is considered a great delicacy...the fat of the body is boiled down and the resulting oil is used as an embrocation and also as a cure for impotence.[5]

[edit] Classification

Gekko gecko in Thailand
Close-up of the head of the legless fossorial amphisbaenid Rhineura
Underside of a T***** devil, an agamid, Western Australia
The Eastern blue-tongued lizard, a scincomorph
The venomous Gila monster, Heloderma s. suspectum
Oriental Garden Lizard in MalaysiaSuborder Lacertilia (Sauria) - (Lizards)

Family †Bavarisauridae
Family †Eichstaettisauridae
Infraorder Iguania
Family †Arretosauridae
Family †Euposauridae
Family Corytophanidae (casquehead lizards)
Family Iguanidae (iguanas and spinytail iguanas)
Family Phrynosomatidae (earless, spiny, tree, side-blotched and horned lizards)
Family Polychrotidae (anoles)
Family Leiosauridae (see Polychrotinae)
Family Tropiduridae (neotropical ground lizards)
Family Liolaemidae (see Tropidurinae)
Family Leiocephalidae (see Tropidurinae)
Family Crotaphytidae (collared and leopard lizards)
Family Opluridae (Madagascar iguanids)
Family Hoplocercidae (wood lizards, clubtails)
Family †Priscagamidae
Family †Isodontosauridae
Family Agamidae (agamas)
Family Chamaeleonidae (chameleons)
Infraorder Gekkota
Family Gekkonidae (geckos)
Family Pygopodidae (legless lizards)
Family Dibamidae (blind lizards)
Infraorder Scincomorpha
Family †Paramacellodidae
Family †Slavoiidae
Family Scincidae (skinks)
Family Cordylidae (spinytail lizards)
Family Gerrhosauridae (plated lizards)
Family Xantusiidae (night lizards)
Family Lacertidae (wall lizards or true lizards)
Family †Mongolochamopidae
Family †Adamisauridae
Family Teiidae (tegus and whiptails)
Family Gymnophthalmidae (spectacled lizards)
Infraorder Diploglossa
Family Anguidae (glass lizards)
Family Anniellidae (American legless lizards)
Family Xenosauridae (knob-scaled lizards)
Infraorder Platynota (Varanoidea)
Family Varanidae (monitor lizards)
Family Lanthanotidae (earless monitor lizards)
Family Helodermatidae (gila monsters & beaded lizards)
Family †Mosasauridae (marine lizards)

[edit] References
This article includes a list of references or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (March 2009)

^ ITIS http://www.itis.gov/servlet/Si...&search_value=173861
^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
^ Auffenberg, Walter (1994). The Bengal Monitor. University Press of Florida. pp. 494. ISBN 0813012953.
^ pg 48, Grzimek,Bernhard. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia (Second Edition) Vol 7 - Reptiles. (2003) Thomson - Gale. Farmington Hills, Minnesota. Vol Editor - Neil Schlager. ISBN 0-7876-5783-2 (for vol.7)
^ pp 244-247, Smith, Malcolm A. (1935) The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burmah, Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol II - Sauria, Taylor and Francis, London.
General references
Byiiuo, John L.; King, F. Wayne (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of North America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 581. ISBN 0394508246.
Capula, Massimo; Behler (1989). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of the World. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671690981.
Cogger, Harold; Zweifel, Richard (1992). Reptiles & Amphibians. Sydney: Weldon Owen. ISBN 0831727861.
Conant, Roger; Collins, Joseph (1991). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0395583896.
Ditmars, Raymond L (1933). Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. New York: Macmillian. pp. 321.
Freiberg, Dr. Marcos; Walls, Jerry (1984). The World of Venomous Animals. New Jersey: TFH Publications. ISBN 0876665679.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sauria
Gibbons, J. Whitfield; Gibbons, Whit (1983). Their Blood Runs Cold: Adventures With Reptiles and Amphibians. Alabama: University of Alabama Press. pp. 164. ISBN 978-0817301354.
Rosenfeld, Arthur (1989). Exotic Pets. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 293. ISBN 067147654.

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Categories: Lizards
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Shark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of sharks.
For other uses, see Shark (disambiguation).
Sharks
Fossil range: Silurian–Recent PreЄЄOSDCPTJKPgN

Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Chondrichthyes

Subclass: Elasmobranchii

Superorder: Selachimorpha

Orders
Carcharhiniformes
Heterodontiformes
Hexanchiformes
Lamniformes
Orectolobiformes
Pristiophoriformes
Squaliformes
Squatiniformes
† Symmoriida
† Cladoselachiformes
† Xenacanthida (Xenacantiformes)
† Iniopterygia
† Eugeneodontida
† Hybodontiformes

Sharks (superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. They respire with the use of five to seven gill slits. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protect their skin from damage and parasites and improve fluid dynamics so the shark can move faster. They have several sets of replaceable teeth.[1] Sharks range in size from the small dwarf lanternshark, Etmopterus perryi, a deep sea species of only 17 centimetres (7 in) in length, to the whale shark, Rhincodon typus, the largest fish, which grows to a length of approximately 12 metres (39 ft) and which feeds only on plankton, squid, and small fish through filter feeding.

The bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, is the best known of several species that swim in both seawater and freshwater, as well as in deltas.[2]

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Physical characteristics
2.1 Skeleton
2.1.1 Jaw
2.1.2 Teeth
2.1.3 Fins
2.2 Dermal denticles
2.3 Tails
3 Physiology
3.1 Buoyancy
3.2 Respiration
3.3 Thermoregulation
3.4 Osmoregulation
4 Senses
4.1 Smell
4.2 Sight
4.3 Hearing
4.4 Electroreception
4.5 Lateral line
5 Life history
5.1 Asexual reproduction
5.2 Lifespan
6 Behavior
6.1 Feeding
6.2 Speed
6.3 Intelligence
6.4 Sleep
7 Distribution and habitat
8 Evolution
9 Taxonomy
10 Interaction with humans
10.1 Shark fishery
10.2 Shark attacks
10.3 Sharks in captivity
11 Conservation
12 Sharks in cultural tradition
12.1 Sharks in Hawaiian mythology
12.2 Popular misconceptions
13 See also
14 References
15 External links

Etymology
Until the 16th century,[3] sharks were known to mariners as "sea dogs".[4] According to the OED the name "shark" first came into use after Sir John Hawkins' sailors exhibited one in London in 1569 and used the word to refer to the large sharks of the Caribbean Sea, and later as a general term for all sharks. It has also been suggested to be derived from the Yucatec Maya word for shark, xok, pronounced [ʃoːk].[5]

Physical characteristics
Main article: Physical characteristics of sharks

Skeleton
Shark skeletons are very different from those of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made from cartilage, which is a flexible and dense connective tissue, but the tissue is still called bones. Shark bones function in the same way that human bones do.

Jaw
Like its relatives, rays and skates, the shark's jaw is not attached to the cranium. The jaw's surface, like the shark's vertebrae and gill arches, needs extra support due to its heavier exposure to physical stress and its need for strength. It has a layer of tiny hexagonal plates called "tesserae", which are crystal blocks of calcium salts arranged as a mosaic.[6] This gives these areas much of the same strength found in the real bony tissue found in other animals.

Generally there is only one layer of tesserae in sharks, but the jaws of large specimens, such as the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have two to three layers or more, depending on body size. The jaws of a large white shark may have up to five layers.

In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and flexible to absorb the power of impacts.

Teeth

The teeth of the tiger shark are oblique and serrated for sawing through flesh.Main article: Shark teeth
The teeth of sharks are embedded in the gums rather than directly fixed to the jaw, and are constantly replaced throughout the shark's life. Multiple rows of replacement teeth are grown in a groove on the inside of the jaw and moved forward in a "conveyor belt"; some sharks can lose some 30,000 teeth in their lifetime. The rate of tooth replacement varies from once every 8–10 days to several months. In most species teeth are replaced one at a time, while in the cookiecutter sharks the entire row of teeth is replaced simultaneously.

The shape of a shark's tooth depends on its diet: those that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense flattened teeth for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are greatly reduced and non-functional.[7]

Fins
The fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the ***** keratin in hair and feathers.

Dermal denticles
Main article: Dermal denticle
Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. In the past, sharkskin has been used as sandpaper.

Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence when swimming.[8]

Tails
Sharks have very distinctive tails .The tails (caudal fins) of sharks vary considerably between species and are adapted to the lifestyle of the shark. The tail provides thrust and so speed and acceleration are dependent on tail shape. Different tail shapes have evolved in sharks adapted for different environments. Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is due to the fact that the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, allowing for a greater surface area for muscle attachment which would then be used for more efficient locomotion among the negatively buoyant cartilaginous fishes. This is in contrast to most bony fishes, which possess a homocercal caudal fin.

The tiger shark's tail has a large upper lobe which delivers the maximum amount of power for slow cruising or sudden bursts of speed. The tiger shark must be able to twist and turn in the water easily when hunting to support its varied diet, whereas the porbeagle, which hunts schooling fish such as mackerel and herring has a large lower lobe to help it keep pace with its fast-swimming prey.[9]

Some tail adaptations have other purposes. The thresher feeds on fish and squid, which it herds and stuns with its powerful and elongated upper lobe.

Physiology

Buoyancy
Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders for buoyancy. Instead, sharks rely on a large liver, filled with oil that contains squalene. The liver constitutes up to 30% of their body mass.[10] The liver's effectiveness is limited, so sharks employ dynamic lift to maintain depth and then sink when they stop swimming. Sandtiger sharks are also known to store air in their stomachs, using the stomach as a swim bladder.

Most sharks need to constantly swim in order to breathe and cannot sleep very long, if at all, or they will sink. However certain shark species, like the nurse shark, are capable of pumping water across their gills, allowing them to rest on the ocean bottom.[11]

Some sharks, if inverted or stroked on the nose, enter a natural state of tonic immobility. Researchers can use this condition to handle sharks safely.[12]

Respiration
Like other fish, sharks extract oxygen from seawater as it passes over their gills. Unlike other fish, shark gill slits are not covered, but lie in a row behind the head. A modified slit called a spiracle is just behind the eye; the spiracle assists water intake during respiration and plays a major role in bottom dwelling sharks. Spiracles are reduced or missing in active pelagic sharks.[7] While the shark is moving, water passes through the mouth and over the gills — this process is known as "ram ventilation". While at rest, most sharks pump water over their gills to ensure a constant supply of oxygenated water. A small subset of constantly swimming species, a behavior common in pelagic sharks, have lost the ability to pump water through their gills. These species are obligate ram ventilators and would presumably asphyxiate if unable move. (Obligate ram ventilation is also true of some pelagic bony fish species.)[13]

The respiration and circulation process begins when deoxygenated blood travels to the shark's two-chambered heart. Here the shark pumps blood to its gills via the ventral aorta artery where it branches off into afferent brachial arteries. Reoxygenation takes place in the gills and the reoxygenated blood flows into the efferent brachial arteries, which come together to form the dorsal aorta. The blood flows from the dorsal aorta throughout the body. The deoxygenated blood from the body then flows through the posterior cardinal veins and enters the posterior cardinal sinuses. From there blood enters the heart ventricle and the cycle repeats.

Thermoregulation
Most sharks are "cold-blooded", or more precisely poikilothermic, meaning that their internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of the family Lamnidae, such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark, are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water. In these sharks, a strip of aerobic red muscle located near the center of the body generates the heat, which the body retains via a countercurrent exchange mechanism by a system of blood vessels called the rete mirabile ("miraculous net"). The common thresher shark has a similar mechanism for maintaining an elevated body temperature, which is thought to have evolved independently.

Osmoregulation
In contrast to bony fish, with the exception of the Coelacanth[14], the blood and other tissue of sharks and Chondrichthyes in general is isotonic to their marine environments because of the high concentration of urea and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), allowing them to be in osmotic balance with the seawater. This adaptation prevents most sharks from surviving in fresh water, and they are therefore confined to marine environments. A few exceptions to this rule exist, such as the bull shark which has developed a way to change its kidney function to excrete large amounts of urea.[10] When a shark dies the urea is broken down to ammonia by bacteria — because of this, the dead body will gradually start to smell strongly of ammonia. [15][16]

Senses

Smell

The shape of the hammerhead shark's head has been speculated to enhance olfaction by spacing the nostrils further apart.Sharks have keen olfactory senses, located in the short duct (which is not fused, unlike bony fish) between the anterior and posterior nasal openings, with some species able to detect as little as one part per million of blood in seawater. They are more attracted to the chemicals found in the guts of many species, and as a result often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as nurse sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey.

Sight
Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to the marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum. This tissue is behind the retina and reflects light back to it, thereby increasing visibility in the dark waters. The effectiveness of the tissue varies, with some sharks having stronger nocturnal adaptations. Sharks have eyelids, but they do not blink because the surrounding water cleans their eyes. To protect their eyes some species have nictitating membranes. This membrane covers the eyes during predation, and when the shark is being attacked. However, some species, including the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), do not have this membrane, but instead roll their eyes backwards to protect them when striking prey. The importance of sight in shark hunting behavior is debated. Some believe that electro- and chemoreception are more significant, while others point to the nictating membrane as evidence that sight is important. (Presumably, the shark would not protect its eyes were they unimportant.) The use of sight probably varies with species and water conditions. In effect the shark's field of vision can swap between monocular and stereoscopic at any time.

Hearing
Although it is hard to test the hearing of sharks, there are indications that they have a sharp sense of hearing and can possibly hear prey many miles away.[17] A small opening on each side of their heads (not to be confused with the spiracle) leads directly into the inner ear through a thin channel. The lateral line shows a similar arrangement, as it is open to the environment via a series of openings called lateral line pores. This is a reminder of the common origin of these two vibration- and sound-detecting organs that are grouped together as the acoustico-lateralis system. In bony fish and tetrapods the external opening into the inner ear has been lost.

Electroreception
Main article: Electroreception

Electroreceptors (Ampullae of Lorenzini) and lateral line canals in the head of a shark.The Ampullae of Lorenzini are the electroreceptor organs of the shark, and they number in the hundreds to thousands. Sharks use the Ampullae of Lorenzini to detect the electromagnetic fields that all living things produce.[18] This helps sharks (mostly the hammerhead) find prey. The shark has the greatest electrical sensitivity of any animal. Sharks find prey hidden in sand by detecting the electric fields the produce. It is this sense that sometimes misleads a shark into attacking a metal boat. When the metal interacts with salt water, it rusts and generates weak electrochemical potentials that resemble those of prey. In some cases, the field is much stronger than the prey's electrical fields: strong enough to attract sharks from miles away.[citation needed] Ocean currents moving in the magnetic field of the Earth also generate electric fields that sharks can use for orientation and possibly navigation.[19]

Lateral line
Main article: Lateral line
This system is found in most fish, including sharks. It detects motion or vibrations in water. The shark uses its lateral line to detect the movements of other organisms, especially wounded fish. The shark can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz.[20]

Life history

The claspers of male spotted wobbegong.Sharks practice internal fertilization. The posterior part of a male shark's pelvic fins are modified into a pair of intromittent organs called claspers, which are used to deliver sperm into the female, analogous to a mammalian *****.

Mating has rarely been observed in sharks. The smaller catsharks often mate with the male curling around the female. In less flexible species the two sharks swim parallel to each other while the male inserts a clasper into the female's oviduct. Females in many of the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a male grasping them to maintain position during mating. The bite marks may also come from courtship behavior: the male may bite the female to show his interest. In some species, females have evolved thicker skin to withstand these bites.

Unlike most bony fishes, sharks are K-selected reproducers, meaning that they produce a small number of well-developed young as opposed to a large number of poorly-developed young. Fecundity in sharks ranges from 2 to over 100 young per reproductive cycle.[21]

The spiral egg case of a Port Jackson shark.Sharks display three ways to bear their young, varying by species:

Oviparity: Some sharks lay eggs. In most of these species, the developing embryo is protected by an egg case with the consistency of leather. Sometimes these cases are corkscrewed into crevices for protection. The mermaid's purse, which can wash up on shore, is an empty egg case. Oviparous sharks include the horn shark, catshark, Port Jackson shark, and swellshark.[22]
Viviparity: These sharks maintain a placental link to the developing young, more analogous to mammalian gestation than that of other fishes. The young are born alive and fully functional. Hammerheads, the requiem sharks (such as the bull and blue sharks), and smoothhounds are viviparous. [21]
Ovoviviparity: Most sharks utilize this method. The egg's yolk and fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct nourishes the embryos. The eggs hatch within the oviduct, and the young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in viviparity, the young are born alive and fully functional. Some species practice oophagy, where the first embryos to hatch eat the remaining eggs in the oviduct. This practice is believed to be present in all lamniforme sharks, while the developing pups of the grey nurse shark take this a stage further and consume other developing embryos (intrauterine cannibalism). The survival strategy for the species that are ovoviviparous is that the young are able to grow to a comparatively large size before birth. The whale shark is now considered to be ovoviviparous after long having been classified as oviparous. Extrauterine whale shark eggs are now thought to have been aborted. Most ovoviviparous sharks give birth in sheltered areas, including bays, river mouths and shallow reefs. They choose such areas for protection from predators (mainly other sharks) and the abundance of food. Dogfish have the longest known gestation period of any shark, at 18 to 24 months. Basking sharks and frilled sharks appear to have even longer gestation periods, but accurate data is lacking.

Asexual reproduction
There are two documented cases in which a female shark who has not been in contact with a male has conceived a pup on her own through a process known as parthenogenesis.[23][24] The details of this process are not well understood but genetic fingerprinting showed that the pups had no paternal genetic contribution, ruling out sperm storage. The extent of this behavior in the wild is unknown, as are whether other species have this capability. Mammals are now the only major vertebrate group in which asexual reproduction has not been observed.

Scientists assert that asexual reproduction in the wild is rare, and probably a last ditch effort to reproduce when a mate isn't present. Asexual reproduction diminishes genetic diversity, which helps build defenses against natural threats. Species that rely solely on it are probably on the road to extinction. Asexual reproduction may have contributed to the blue shark's decline off the Irish coast.[25]

Lifespan
The maximum lifespan of a shark varies by species. Most sharks live 20 to 30 years, while the spiny dogfish has the longest lifespan at more than 100 years.[26] Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) have been hypothesized to also live over 100 years.[27]

Behavior
The classic view describes a solitary hunter, ranging the oceans in search of food. However, this applies to only a few species, with most living far more sedentary, benthic lives. Even solitary sharks meet for breeding or at rich hunting grounds, which may lead them to cover thousands of miles in a year.[28] Migration patterns in sharks may be even more complex than in birds, with many sharks covering entire ocean basins. However, shark behavior has only begun to be formally studied, so there is much more to learn.

Sharks can be highly social, remaining in large schools; sometimes over 100 individuals of scalloped hammerheads congregate around seamounts and islands, e.g., in the Gulf of California.[10] Cross-species social hierarchies exist with oceanic whitetip sharks dominating silky sharks of comparable size when feeding.date=August 2009

When approached too closely some sharks will perform a threat display to warn off the prospective predators. This usually consists of exaggerated swimming movements, and can vary in intensity according to the level of threat.[29]

Feeding
This section is about shark feeding. For the sport of shark feeding, see Shark baiting.

Like many sharks, the great white shark is an apex predator in its environment.All sharks are carnivorous. Many believe that sharks will eat just about anything; for a few species, such as the tiger shark, this is true. The vast majority seek particular prey, and rarely stray from these. Sharks such as whale, basking and megamouth sharks use filter feeding. These three species evolved plankton feeding independently and use different strategies. Whale sharks feed using suction to take in large concentrations of plankton and small fishes. Basking sharks are ram-feeders, swimming through plankton blooms with their mouth wide open,. Megamouth sharks make suction feeding more efficient, using luminescent tissue inside the mouth to attract prey in the deep ocean. This type of feeding requires gill rakers, long slender filaments that form a very efficient sieve, analogous to the baleen plates of the great whales. The shark traps the plankton in these filaments and swallows from time to time in huge mouthfuls. Teeth in these species are comparatively small because they are not needed for feeding.

Other highly specialized feeders include the cookiecutter sharks, which feed on flesh sliced out of other larger fish and marine mammals. The teeth in these sharks are enormous, compared to their size. The lower jaw’s teeth are particularly sharp. Although they have never been observed feeding they are believed to latch onto their prey and use their thick lips to make a seal, twisting their bodies to rip off flesh. [10]

Some seabed dwelling species are highly effective ambush predators. Angel sharks and wobbegongs use camouflage to lie in wait and **** prey into their mouths. Many benthic sharks feed solely on crustaceans which they crush with their flat molariform teeth.

Other sharks feed on squid or fishes, which the swallow whole. The viper dogfish has teeth it can point outwards to strike and capture prey that it then swallows intact. The great white and other large predators can either swallow small prey whole or take huge bites out of large animals. Thresher sharks use their long tails to stun shoaling fishes, and sawsharks may either stir prey from the seabed or slash at swimming prey with their tooth-studded rostra. Many sharks, including the whitetip reef shark are cooperative feeders and hunt in packs to herd and capture elusive prey. These social sharks are often highly migratory, travelling huge distances around ocean basins in large schools. These migrations may be partly necessary to find new food sources. [30]

Digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a 'J' shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead either vomit or turn their stomachs inside out and evert unwanted items from their mouths.

One of the biggest differences between shark and mammalian digestion is sharks’ extremely short intestine. This short length is achieved by the spiral valve with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a long surface area, requiring food to circulate inside the short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass into the cloaca.

Speed
In general, sharks swim ("cruise") at an average speed of 8 kilometres per hour (5.0 mph) but when feeding or attacking, the average shark can reach speeds upwards of 19 kilometres per hour (12 mph). The shortfin mako may range upwards of 50 kilometres per hour (31 mph).[31] The shortfin mako shark is the fastest shark and one of the fastest fish. The great white shark is also capable of bursts of speed. These exceptions may be due to the "warm-blooded", or homeothermic, nature of these sharks' physiology.

Intelligence
Contrary to the common wisdom that sharks are instinct-driven "eating machines", recent studies have indicated that many species possess powerful problem-solving skills, social skills and curiosity. The brain- to body-mass ratios of sharks are similar to mammals and other higher vertebrate species.[32]

In 1987, near Smitswinkle Bay, South Africa, a group of up to seven great white sharks worked together to move a partially beached dead whale to deeper waters to feed.[33]

Sharks can engage in playful activities. Porbeagle sharks have been seen repeatedly rolling in kelp and chasing an individual who trailed a piece of kelp behind it.[34]

Sleep
Some sharks can lie on the bottom while actively pumping water over their gills, but their eyes remain open and actively follow divers. When a shark is resting, it does not use its nares, but rather its spiracles. If a shark tried to use its nares while resting on the ocean floor, it would be ****ing up sand rather than water. Many scientists believe this is one of the reasons sharks have spiracles. The spiny dogfish's spinal cord rather than its brain, coordinates swimming, so it is possible for spiny dogfish to continue to swim while sleeping.

It is also possible that sharks sleep in a manner similar to dolphins,[35] one cerebral hemisphere at a time, thus maintaining some consciousness and cerebral activity at all times.

Distribution and habitat
Sharks are found in all seas. They generally do not live in freshwater, with a few exceptions such as the bull shark and the river shark which can swim both in seawater and freshwater. Sharks are common down to depths of 2,000 metres (7,000 ft), and some live even deeper, but they are almost entirely absent below 3,000 metres (10,000 ft). The deepest confirmed report of a shark is a Portuguese dogfish at 3,700 metres (12,000 ft).[36][37]

Evolution

A collection of fossilised shark teethEvidence for the existence of sharks extends back over 450–420 million years, into the Ordovician period, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents.[38] Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks.[39] The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the Silurian period.[39] The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks.[40] The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago.[41]

Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. In some cases pieces of the skeleton and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that a shark may grow tens of thousands of teeth, which explains the abundance of fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite.

Instead of bones, sharks have cartilagenous skeletons, with a bone-like layer broken up into thousands of isolated apatite prisms. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms. Skeletal preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.

Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is Cladoselache, from about 370 million years ago,[40] which has been found within Paleozoic strata in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. At that point in Earth's history these rocks made up the soft sediment of the bottom of a large, shallow ocean, which stretched across much of North America. Cladoselache was only about 1 metre (3.3 ft) long with stiff triangular fins and slender jaws.[40] Its teeth had several pointed cusps, which wore down by use. From the small number of teeth found together , it is most likely that Cladoselache did not replace its teeth as regularly as modern sharks. Its caudal fins had a similar shape to the great white sharks and the pelagic shortfin and longfin makos. The presence of whole fish arranged tail-first in their stomachs suggest that they were fast swimmers with great agility.

From about 300 to 150 million years ago, most fossil sharks can be assigned to one of two groups. The Xenacanthida was almost exclusive to freshwater environments.[42][43] By the time this group became extinct about 220 million years ago, they had spread worldwide. The other group, the hybodonts, appeared about 320 million years ago and lived mostly in the oceans, but also in freshwater.

Megalodon with the great white shark and a human for scaleModern sharks began to appear about 100 million years ago.[41] Fossil mackerel shark teeth lived in the Lower Cretaceous. One of the most recently evolved families is the hammerhead shark (family Sphyrnidae), which emerged in the Eocene.[44] The oldest white shark teeth date from 60 to 65 million years ago, around the time of the extinction of the dinosaurs. In early white shark evolution there are at least two lineages: one with coarsely serrated teeth that probably gave rise to the modern great white shark, and another with finely serrated teeth that grew to gigantic size. This group includes the extinct Megalodon, Carcharodon megalodon, which like most extinct sharks is only known from its teeth and a few vertebrae. This shark could grow to more than 16 metres (52 ft) long and is the biggest known carnivorous fish to have ever existed. Fossils reveal that this shark preyed upon whales and other large marine mammals.

Taxonomy
Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It is currently thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks.

The superorder Selachimorpha is divided into Galea (or Galeomorphii), and Squalea. The Galeans are the Heterodontiformes, Orectolobiformes, Lamniformes, and Carcharhiniformes. Lamnoids and Carcharhinoids are usually placed in one clade, but recent studies show the Lamnoids and Orectoloboids are a clade. Some scientists now think that Heterodontoids may be Squalean. The Squalea is divided into Hexanchoidei and Squalomorpha. The Hexanchoidei includes the Hexanchiformes and Chlamydoselachiformes. The Squalomorpha contains the Squaliformes and the Hypnosqualea. The Hypnosqualea is now sometimes considered invalid. It includes the Squatiniformes, and the Pristorajea, which may also be invalid, includes the Pristiophoriformes and the Batoidea.

There are more than 440 species of sharks split across eight orders, listed below in roughly their evolutionary relationship from ancient to modern:

Hexanchiformes: Examples from this group include the cow sharks, frilled shark and even a shark that resembles a marine snake.
Squaliformes: This group includes the bramble sharks, dogfish and roughsharks, and *****ly shark.
Pristiophoriformes: These are the sawsharks, with an elongated, toothed snout that they use for slashing their prey.
Squatiniformes: Also known as angel sharks, they are flattened sharks with a strong resemblance to stingrays and skates.
Heterodontiformes: They are generally referred to as the bullhead or horn sharks.
Orectolobiformes: They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs and the whale shark.
Carcharhiniformes: Commonly known as groundsharks, the species include the blue, tiger, bull, grey reef, blacktip reef, Caribbean reef, blacktail reef, whitetip reef and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.
Lamniformes: They are commonly known as the mackerel sharks. They include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth shark, the thresher sharks, shortfin and longfin mako sharks, and great white shark. They are distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction. The Lamniformes include the extinct megalodon, Carcharodon megalodon.

Interaction with humans

Shark fishery

The number of sharks being caught has increased rapidly over the last 50 years.An estimate states that, every year, 26 to 73 million (median value is at 38 million) sharks are killed by people in commercial and recreational fishing.[45] Another study estimates that 11,000 sharks are killed each hour, amounting to nearly 100 million a year [46]. In the past, some sharks were killed simply for the sport of landing a good fighting fish (such as the shortfin mako sharks). Shark skin is covered with dermal denticles, which are similar to tiny teeth, and can be used for purposes similar to sandpaper. Other sharks are hunted for food (Atlantic thresher, shortfin mako and others), and some species for other products.[47]

Sharks are a common seafood in many places around the world, including Japan and Australia. In the Australian State of Victoria shark is the most commonly used fish in fish and chips, in which fillets are battered and deep-fried or crumbed and grilled and served alongside chips. In fish and chip shops, shark is called flake. In India small sharks or baby sharks (called sora in Tamil language, Telugu language) are sold in local markets. Since the flesh is not developed completely it boiling breaks it into powder which is then fried in oil and spices (called sora puttu). The soft bones and can be easily chewed. They are considered a delicacy in coastal Tamil Nadu. In Iceland, Greenland sharks are fished to produce hákarl or fermented shark, which is widely regarded as a national dish.

A 14-foot (4 m), 544 kg (1200 pound) Tiger shark caught in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu in 1966.Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup: the finning process involves the removal of the fin with a hot metal blade. Fishermen capture live sharks, fin them, and release the finless animal back into the water. The now immobile shark soon dies from suffocation or predators. Despite claims that this practice is rare, it has become a major trade within black markets all over the world with shark fins going at about $220/lb in 2009. Millions of sharks are illegally poached each year for their fins and too few governments enforce laws that protect them. The dish is considered a status symbol in Asian countries, and is considered healthy and full of nutrients, with some even claiming they prevent cancer and other ailments.[48] No scientific proof supports these claims; at least one study has shown shark cartilage of no value in cancer treatment.[49] The shark fin trade is a major problem and has gained international attention. Conservationists have campaigned to make finning illegal in the U.S.

Sharks are also killed for meat. The meat of dogfishes, smoothhounds, catsharks, makos, porbeagle and also skates and rays are in high demand by European consumers.[50] However, the U.S. FDA lists sharks as one of four fish (with swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish) that children and women who are or may be pregnant should refrain from eating. For details see mercury in fish.

Shark cartilage has been advocated as effective against cancer and for treatment of osteoarthritis. (This is because many people falsely believe that sharks cannot get cancer and that taking it will prevent people from getting these diseases.) A clinical trial by Mayo Clinic found no effect in advanced cancer patients.

Sharks generally reach sexual maturity slowly and produce very few offspring in comparison to other harvested fish. Harvesting sharks before they reproduce has severe impacts on future populations.

Organizations such as the Shark Trust campaign to limit shark fishing. According to Seafood Watch, sharks are currently on the list of fish that American consumers, who are sustainability minded, should avoid.date=August 2009

Shark attacks

A sign warning about the presence of sharks in Salt Rock, South Africa.
Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark. In rare circumstances involving poor visibility, blacktips may bite a human, mistaking it for prey. Under normal conditions they are harmless and shy.Main article: Shark attack
In 2006 the International Shark Attack File (ISAF) undertook an investigation into 96 alleged shark attacks, confirming 62 of them as unprovoked attacks and 16 as provoked attacks. The average number of fatalities worldwide per year between 2001 and 2006 from unprovoked shark attacks is 4.3.[51]

Contrary to popular belief, only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of more than 360 species, only four have been involved in a significant number of fatal, unprovoked attacks on humans: the great white, oceanic whitetip, tiger, and bull sharks.[52] [53] These sharks, are large, powerful predators, and may sometimes attack and kill people. Interestingly, they have all been filmed without using a protective cage.[54]

The perception of sharks as dangerous animals has been popularized by publicity given to a few isolated unprovoked attacks, such as the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, and through popular fictional works about shark attacks, such as the Jaws film series. Jaws, author Peter Benchley in his later years attempted to dispel the image of sharks as man-eating monsters.

Sharks in captivity

A whale shark in Georgia Aquarium.Main article: Sharks in captivity
Until recently only a few benthic species of shark, such as hornsharks, leopard sharks and catsharks had survived in aquarium conditions for a year or more. This gave rise to the belief that sharks, as well as being difficult to capture and transport, were difficult to care for. More knowledge has led to more species (including the large pelagic sharks) living far longer in captivity. At the same time, transportation techniques have improved and long distance movement of sharks is becoming easier.[55] One shark that never had been successfully held in captivity for long was the great white. But in September 2004 the Monterey Bay Aquarium successfully kept a young female great white shark for 198 days before releasing her back into the wild.

Most species of shark are not suitable for domestic aquaria and not every species of shark sold by pet stores make good inhabitants for personal aquaria. Some species can be kept well in home sal****er aquaria.[56] Uninformed or unscrupulous dealers sometimes sell juvenile sharks like the nurse shark, which upon reaching adulthood will have far outgrown typical home aquaria.[56] Public aquaria are generally not interested in accepting donated specimens that have overgrown their housing and some shark owners have been tempted to release them into the wild.[56] Species appropriate to home aquaria represent considerable spatial and financial investments as they generally approach adult lengths of 3 feet and can live up to 25 years.[56]

Conservation

The value of shark fins for shark fin soup has led to an increase in shark catches. Usually only the fins are taken, while the rest of the shark is discarded, usually into the sea.The majority of shark fisheries around the globe have little monitoring or management. With the rise in demand for shark products there is a greater pressure on fisheries.[57] Stocks decline and collapse because it is difficult for sharks to breed rapidly enough to maintain population levels, given the long interval between birth and sexual maturity. Major declines in shark stocks have been recorded—some species have been depleted by over 90% over the past 20–30 years with a population decline of 70% not unusual.[58] Many governments and the UN have acknowledged the need for shark fisheries management, but due to the low economic value of shark fisheries, the small volumes of products produced and the poor public image of sharks, little progress has been made.

Other threats to sharks include habitat alteration, damage and loss from coastal development, pollution and the impact of fisheries on the seabed and prey species. The practice of shark finning, attracts much controversy and regulations are being enacted to prevent it from occurring. The acclaimed 2007 documentary, Sharkwater exposed how sharks are being hunted to extinction, in part due to the massive Asian demand for shark fin soup.

Sharks in cultural tradition

Sharks in Hawaiian mythology
Sharks figure prominently in Hawaiian mythology. Stories tell of men with shark jaws on their back who could change between shark and human form. A common theme in the stories was that a shark-men would warn beach-goers of sharks in the waters. The beach-goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and get eaten by the shark-man who warned them.

Hawaiian mythology also includes many shark gods. Some families' Aumakua, or deified ancestor guardians, were sharks who protected family members.

Kamohoali'i: The best known and revered of the shark gods, he was the older and favored brother of Pele,[59] and helped and journeyed with her to Hawaii. He was able to assume all human and fish forms. A summit cliff on the crater of Kīlauea is one of his most sacred spots. At one point he had a heiau (temple or shrine) dedicated to him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Moloka'i.
Ka'ahupahau: This goddess was born human. Red hair was her defining characteristic. She later changed into shark form to protect people who lived on O'ahu from sharks. She lived near Pearl Harbor.
Kaholia Kane: The shark god of the ali'i Kalaniopu'u who lived in a cave at Puhi, Kaua'i.
Kane'ae: The shark goddess who transformed into a human in order to experience the joy of dancing.
Kane'apua: Most commonly, the brother of Pele and Kamohoali'i. He was a trickster god who performed many heroic feats, including the calming of two legendary colliding hills that destroyed canoes trying to pass between.
Kawelomahamahai'a: Another human, he was transformed into a shark.
Keali'ikau 'o Ka'u: The cousin of Pele and son of Kua. He was the protector of the Ka'u people. He had an affair with a human girl, who gave birth to a helpful green shark.
Kua: This was the main shark god of the people of Ka'u, and believed to be their ancestor.
Kuhaimoana: The brother of Pele and lived in the Ka'ula islet. He was Template:Convert 30 long and was the husband of Ka'ahupahau.
Kauhuhu - A fierce king shark who lived in a cave in Kipahulu on the island of Maui. He sometimes moved to another cave on the windward side of island of Moloka'i.
Kane-i-kokala: A kind shark god who saved shipwrecked people by taking them to shore. The people who worshipped him feared to eat, touch or cross the smoke of the kokala, his sacred fish.
In other Pacific Ocean cultures, Daku****a was a shark god who was the eater of lost souls.

Popular misconceptions
A popular myth is that sharks are immune to disease and cancer; however, this remains to be proven. Sharks may get cancer.[60][61] Both diseases and parasites affect sharks. The evidence that sharks are at least resistant to cancer and disease is mostly anecdotal and there have been few, if any, scientific or statistical studies that show sharks to have heightened immunity to disease.[62]

See also
List of sharks
List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish
Marine vertebrates

References
^ Budker, Paul (1971). The Life of Sharks. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. SBN 297003070.
^ Allen, Thomas B. (1999). The Shark Almanac. New York: The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-55821-582-4. OCLC 39627633.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". http://www.etymonline.com/inde...hark&searchmode=none. Retrieved on 2006-08-08.
^ Marx, Robert F. (1990). The History of Underwater Exploration. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 0-486-26487-4.
^ Jones, Tom. "The Xoc, the Sharke, and the Sea Dogs: An Historical Encounter". http://www.mesoweb.com/pari/pu...ns/RT07/211-Xoc.html. Retrieved on 2009-07-11.
^ Hamlett, W. C. (1999). Sharks, Skates and Rays: The Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6048-2. OCLC 39217534.
^ a b Gilbertson, Lance (1999). Zoology Laboratory Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.. ISBN 0-07-237716-X.
^ R. Aidan Martin. "Skin of the Teeth". http://www.elasmo-research.org...ite_shark/scales.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.
^ Nelson, Joseph S. (1994). Fishes of the World. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-54713-1. OCLC 28965588.
^ a b c d Compagno, Leonard; Dando, Marc & Fowler, Sarah (2005). Sharks of the World. Collins Field Guides. ISBN 0-00-713610-2. OCLC 183136093.
^ Do sharks sleep
^ Pratt, H. L. Jr; Gruber, S. H.; & Taniuchi, T. (1990). Elasmobranchs as living resources: Advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech Rept..
^ William J. Bennetta (1996). "Deep Breathing". http://www.textbookleague.org/73shark.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.
^ Chemistry of the body fluids of the coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae
^ John A. Musick (2005). "Management techniques for elasmobranch fisheries: 14. Shark Utilization". FAO: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0212e/A0212E18.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
^ Thomas Batten. "[http://www.ocean.udel.edu/mas/seafood/mako.html MAKO SHARK Isurus oxyrinchus]". Delaware Sea Grant, University of Delaware. http://www.ocean.udel.edu/mas/seafood/mako.html. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
^ R. Aidan Martin. "Hearing and Vibration Detection". http://www.elasmo-research.org...te_shark/hearing.htm. Retrieved on 2008-06-01.
^ Kalmijn AJ (November 1982). "Electric and magnetic field detection in elasmobranch fishes". Science (New York, N.Y.) 218 (4575): 916–8. PMID 7134985.
^ Meyer CG, Holland KN, Papastamatiou YP (March 2005). "Sharks can detect changes in the geomagnetic field". Journal of the Royal Society, Interface / the Royal Society 2 (2): 129–30. doi:10.1098/rsif.2004.0021. PMID 16849172. PMC: 1578252. http://journals.royalsociety.o....1098/rsif.2004.0021.
^ Popper, A.N.; C. Platt (1993). "Inner ear and lateral line". The Physiology of Fishes (CRC Press) (1st ed.).
^ a b Leonard J. V. Compagno (1984). Sharks of the World: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-104543-7. OCLC 156157504.
^ "Marine Biology notes". School of Life Sciences, Napier University. http://www.lifesciences.napier...ching/MB/Fish02.html. Retrieved on 2006-09-12.
^ Chapman DD, Shivji MS, Louis E, Sommer J, Fletcher H, Prodöhl PA (August 2007). "Virgin birth in a hammerhead shark". Biology letters 3 (4): 425–7. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0189. PMID 17519185. PMC: 2390672. http://journals.royalsociety.o....1098/rsbl.2007.0189.
^ DNA test proves it -- baby shark has no father, CNN, 10 Oct. 2008
^ "Female sharks reproduce without male DNA, scientists say". The New York Times, New York City. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05...science/23shark.html. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
^ "Mote Marine Laboratory, "Shark Notes"". http://www.mote.org/index.php?...es&category=Aquarium.
^ "Florida Museum of Natural History Ic

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted

Kollerkrot

Power Member

Posted

quote:
Originally posted by LAPD:
quote:
Originally posted by Houston:
Reporting illegal conduct is not a violation of federal or state law.

Reporting illegal conduct is one thing but making immigration threats another and constitutes a criminally harrassment in federal statue and also in state laws in every state. Practice what you preach. Report her and let authorities to deal with her than talking nonstop about indictment, "soon all this stop", jail, deportation, court, ICE, etc. This trick shouldnt intimidate nor stop her from standing up against what she believes boogieman did and up to.

What is IP's status actually and how did she obtain it? Is she married to a USC? Did she come here on visa and what kind?

“...I may condemn what you say, but I will give my life for that you may say it”! - Voltaire

Posts: 2133 | Registered: 04-08-2006

Ignored post by Kollerkrot posted

Houston

Power Member

Posted

Making immigration threats? Lmao! So, complying with the law is a threat? Only in your world!

Harassment? Telling a person who commits an illegal act that she will be caught? Asking a person to stop criminal activity is harassment? Then commercials who tell people don't drink and drive or you will get caught would be harassment. Harassment is an offense of intent, specific intent, but how would she know that? lmao... People usually read a law and think they know what it means, well, the reality can be surprising! But again, how would she know that?

You want harassment? How about what she's done? The threats? You playing a blind eye to that?

Give me a break! She's the one who confessed to all this, nobody even asked her. Now she's running scared trying to defame others who know the truth in fear it'll be revealed. She did this, nobody wanted to know.

Harassment? I asked her to stop harassing us, and she refused. This board is filled with her litter and with witnesses to what she's done.

Telling an illegal alien that she will be deported is not a crime, and alerting others about her status is not a crime. You want crimes, look at her posts. Anybody can go look at her allegations about me, Sprint and others, taking money and doing all sorts of things. Wasn't that harassment? How about the threats of violence Sprint just quoted? Go fool yourself, but you don't fool any of us!

Harassment? Reporting illegal conduct is not harassment. Alerting people of crime is not harassment. None of this is made up, it's her own words and admissions, and the evidence is in writing, validated and taken to the (real) police.

You are an officer? Prove it, we are entitled to know your identification information. Exactly her pattern, avoiding questions and any attempt to verify the allegations. This plot will not work, said it again and I say it now. Funny LAPD doesn't know anything about anybody at ILW.

This is pathetic, a new low for her. Go on, you can only scare people who don't know the law. She asked for this, and now she'll face consequences, not my call, it was her own. She committed the crime, and she will be prosecuted. What part of that is harassment? It's like saying "it'll be a new day tomorrow" it's a fact, not harassment.

We are only stating facts. Was it harassment on her part when she said the Bush administration would be prosecuted? She said that over and over again? Give me a break, and go scare a two year old who don't know what the law means! And this is even funnier. The only person who has made allegations that cannot be sustained but by fantasy and conspiracy theories is not exactly me, or Sprint or any other.

She had a chance to tell her "story", she's done so for months. Then she returned here with more allegations yet offered no proof whatsoever of anything she claims to be unlawful. She has been asked to take judicial action against all the persons she thinks are in the wrong here, but she has refused to do so. She instead continues to insult people without offering a trace of truth to the allegations.

You want harassment? She is the very definition of it. Telling a person to go to court is not, in any way, any threat or any trick, it's a reminder for those who are continuously manipulated and bullied by her that the end to all this is within reach and will be provided by the law.

She has asked for it, no post here was made but in response to her allegations. No lies, no tricks, just her very own words. And we have the evidence. Nobody would post to her, so she returned seeking the attention she now complains about.

No answer on the question of jurisdiction huh? No comment on the statutes I asked about..lmao.. no answer to any question... Bogus, but that's the pattern here with her.

None of this is our doing, it's entirely her own. What happens to her is only the product of her actions. Yes, SHE WILL BE PROSECUTED. That is a matter of fact, and stating fact is perfectly legal.

You all should go play games somewhere else and leave this board to the people who are actually here to contribute and help.

This message has been edited. Last edited by: Houston,

Posts: 2798 | Registered: 12-19-2005

Ignored post by Houston posted

Sprint_girl07

Power Member

Posted

Cyberstalking:

When identifying cyberstalking "in the field," and particularly when considering whether to report it to any kind of legal authority, the following features or combination of features can be considered to characterize a true stalking situation: malice, premeditation, repetition, distress, obsession, vendetta, no legitimate purpose, personally directed, disregarded warnings to stop, harassment, and threats.[3]

A number of key factors have been identified:

* False accusations. Many cyberstalkers try to damage the reputation of their victim and turn other people against them. They post false information about them on websites. They may set up their own websites, blogs or user pages for this purpose. They post allegations about the victim to newsgroups, chat rooms or other sites that allow public contributions, such as Wikipedia or Amazon.com.[4]

Iperson has done this. Posting here and she set up her own blog site with her allegations, including pictures of members (without consent)

Attempts to gather information about the victim. Cyberstalkers may approach their victim's friends, family and work colleagues to obtain personal information. They may advertise for information on the Internet, or hire a private detective. They often will monitor the victim's online activities and attempt to trace their IP address in an effort to gather more information about their victims. [5]

Iperson has done this. Approached members here who knew us in some way, including obtaining name, address and email address. Also searched whatever she could on google and alike.
To her own confession she says she has IP addresses, from her so called sites. Not ours of course (except she did have mine before already), and threatening to post the information. The poor innocent person who's IP it really is has no idea what she does with that information.
Also remember she has multi times posted sites for members here to go and follow her and read her blogs etc, now stating she has stalkers from this site. It is her trap to collect IP addresses, and to those not realizing that she can, may now be at risk of what she may do with that info, if in fact it is any members here.

She has on more than one occasion threatened to contact my ex (knowing that I have a permanaent protective order against him)

Encouraging others to harass the victim. Many cyberstalkers try to involve third parties in the harassment. They may claim the victim has harmed the stalker or his/her family in some way, or may post the victim's name and telephone number in order to encourage others to join the pursuit.

Iperson has done this. She has also posted private information on here for all to see. Also after this all started, I had numerous of silent phone calls to my house, especially at night.

False victimization. The cyberstalker will claim that the victim is harassing him/her. Bocij writes that this phenomenon has been noted in a number of well-known cases.

Iperson has done this. Keeps saying lately she is the victim of stalking, yet keeps coming back here to harrass and play the victim.

Attacks on data and equipment. They may try to damage the victim's computer by sending viruses.

Iperson sent me an email with an ecard on Christmas Eve. To her confession she said she obtained that email address and my name from another member here, and used that information to email me and let me know she had it. The ecard said, Happy Christmas you stupid English cow, or close to that. (with a laughing cow as the card.
The email (ecard) that she sent me, must have contained a virus of some sort as I quickly had major problems with my computer and lost data. I am finding out if in fact my computer was hacked.

* Ordering goods and services. They order items or subscribe to magazines in the victim's name. These often involve subscriptions to ****ography or ordering *** toys then having them delivered to the victim's workplace.

Since she made it known of my private email address by posting it here, I have been sent numberous amount of spam.

Arranging to meet. Young people face a particularly high risk of having cyberstalkers try to set up meetings between them.[6]

She wanted to before, thank God I never did!

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
God Bless America - God Bless Immigrants - God Bless Poor Misguided Souls Too

National Domestic Violence Hotline:
1.800.799.SAFE (7233) 1.800.787.3224 (TTY)
Anonymous & Confidential Help 24/7

Posts: 9713 | Registered: 06-06-2007

Ignored post by Sprint_girl07 posted

Power Member

Posted

dont even bother with him. officer on ilw board? lol . look, call the FBI and report this so called officer and they will be bale to trace his ip and get the exact location through ilw.com . dont even bother with this guy, this is just another illusion from iperson

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted

Power Member

Posted

and why L.A anyway? lol

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted

Sprint_girl07

Power Member

Posted

quote:
Originally posted by mike_2007:
dont even bother with him. officer on ilw board? lol . look, call the FBI and report this so called officer and they will be bale to trace his ip and get the exact location through ilw.com . dont even bother with this guy, this is just another illusion from iperson

LOL as if anyone would fall for that, how pathetic. I guess they are a wanna be like IP and live in fantasy.

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Posts: 9713 | Registered: 06-06-2007

Ignored post by Sprint_girl07 posted

Power Member

Posted

and what kind of officer is that posting online and then chosing the name(L.A.P.D) , like if they have nothing to do but tracing the yahoo msngr chating stuff lol . in reality sometimes it take them hours to show up when u call them and sometimes they dont even show up and this idiot is taking the time to log in and type and post and and and lol . hello mr police man

how is the weather in L.A? loooooooool

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted

Power Member

Posted

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted

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Posted

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted