Reading all of this in detail, what pops into my head is: What is that you (IP) have, in which Houston could be so tremendously interested in?
she has what all females have and what all men want so dearly. boogieman seems having playing with women but didnt realize ip is not like other dumb-women he could prey on. he got caught by her in the middle of his game but now he is trying to discredit he with some of his women admirers. she could be alone in standing up and everyone hates her on ilw for their own reasons, this shouldn't be the reason to dismiss her claims.
My analysis then is rather human. The truth is, men are preprogrammed just as much as women are preprogrammed. Women do have what men want and men have want women want - that's how God wanted it. Smart women know that and if they don't want to be bothered they walk away and don't make it their life's work to want to protect the whole world by discrediting a (1) man, because then women would have to want to go around and discredit all men.
WAKE UP!!!
“...I may condemn what you say, but I will give my life for that you may say it”! - Voltaire
Originally posted by Brit4064: "hell hath no fury like a woman scorned"
...just let it out on some other dude...he might enjoy it.
My friend said the other day on the phone - I just received a message in my inbox from somebody saying: "I am h.orney"! So I told my friend go answere him/her: "Go phuck yourself"! End of story!!
This message has been edited. Last edited by: Kollerkrot,
“...I may condemn what you say, but I will give my life for that you may say it”! - Voltaire
Reading all of this in detail, what pops into my head is: What is that you (IP) have, in which Houston could be so tremendously interested in?
she has what all females have and what all men want so dearly. boogieman seems having playing with women but didnt realize ip is not like other dumb-women he could prey on. he got caught by her in the middle of his game but now he is trying to discredit her with the help of some of his women admirers. she could be alone in standing up on this and everyone can hate her on ilw for their own reasons but this shouldn't be the reason to dismiss her claims.
There are things called limitations and understanding the word, NO. All together now.
The moment you capitulate to lawlessness you've lost your civility.
Posts: 9112 | Location: San Diego, or near by. | Registered: 06-08-2007
Reporting illegal conduct is not a violation of federal or state law. Not doing could well be. What's the name of the two statutes regulating this under Title 18? ... any police officer would know that. What's more, any police officer will not take a side and would not use name calling or colorful adjectives.
So, we all have a right to ask for identifying information when in the presence of a "police officer". What's yours? Let's see, if I called the LAPD they would confirm you, right? lmao... Oh, wait, this is where stories about operations come in, but yet the screen name is not something that leaves anything to the imagination, no undercover anything here... Ridiculous, this entire new plot is just laughable! Jurisdiction of LAPD here? Tell us about it...
If you have no real support form real people, then make up your imaginary crowd...
Running desperate now? Not my problem! iPerson, no funky ID will will help you play your mind games. And yes, it'll end, and yes, she'll be in ICE custody soon enough!
This is very clear for all to see, and now you're sounding really desperate. I suggest you stop digging a hole and begin to face reality. You will have a chance to explain all (and this new thing) to the court, I suggest you use it.
immigration threat is a harrassment in federal statue
Yeah right, who's going to enforce that. Any law that protects an alien is written on a roll of toilet paper. The USCIS is above, and ignores any stupid law that protects sub-humans aliens.
Reporting crime is not a violation of law Unique, they even have so-called whistle blower laws to encourage people to report illegal activity.
She's jumping off the cliff and don't even care!
Any immigration officer has a right to question any alien, based solely on the person's alienage. That's law. Questioning her about status, if performed by a DHS official, is routine and legal, even without any probable cause. DHS officers also have the right to arrest for violations of Federal Law, even under Title 18. All there in black and white.
Nobody's offending my site. You are STALKING me, and it is affecting me adversely. It is a psychological torture, and I've had enough! Cops or server won't stop you from accessing my RSS, and you know it.
Does this sound like we are stalking or her? Does this sound like she is stressed out with fear? Why does she keep coming back here harrassing?
Now LAPD.. threats huh? How about these from IP..
Quote: You are a very bad person Sprint, the worse I've ever met. I don't know who you are people, and what you want from me, but if this doesn't stop, the constant threats, constant stalking... I don't know know what I am going to do but I will have to do something about it to get you out of my life.
Quote: (IP has been deleting threads lol but luckily I did quote them for exhibits )
I have a friend in Oklahoma City, not far from you. Do you realize that your IP address can lead me straight to your computer. Do you realize all this?
Oooh.. I could go back and bring up all the threats made by Iperson. All before we even said we would call ICE. We have every right to call whoever we like, especially if we feel she is a threat to someone in real life and if she is breaking the law.
George, think of it this way, at least she would be out of your and your family's life for good, no more blackmailing you either
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- God Bless America - God Bless Immigrants - God Bless Poor Misguided Souls Too
National Domestic Violence Hotline: 1.800.799.SAFE (7233) 1.800.787.3224 (TTY) Anonymous & Confidential Help 24/7
Once upon a time ILW stood for Intelligent, Luscious Women but now it has turned women into Irritable Loner Whackos....
I demand we bring this forum back to S E X. A solution to all problems, a solution that can help us live peacefully, make sweet and passionate memories
If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans
Democrats - Brave enough to KILL our unborn, just NOT our ENEMIES!
Reading all of this in detail, what pops into my head is: What is that you (IP) have, in which Houston could be so tremendously interested in?
she has what all females have and what all men want so dearly. boogieman seems having playing with women but didnt realize ip is not like other dumb-women he could prey on. he got caught by her in the middle of his game but now he is trying to discredit her with the help of some of his women admirers. she could be alone in standing up on this and everyone can hate her on ilw for their own reasons but this shouldn't be the reason to dismiss her claims.
That is delusion.
“...I may condemn what you say, but I will give my life for that you may say it”! - Voltaire
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Tea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The references in this article or section may not meet Wikipedia's guidelines for reliable sources. Please help by checking whether the references meet the criteria for reliable sources. Further discussion may be found on the talk page. This article has been tagged since July 2009.
For other uses, see Tea (disambiguation).
Green Tea leaves in a Chinese gaiwan. A tea bush. Plantation workers picking tea in Tanzania. Tea plant (Camellia sinensis) from Köhler's Medicinal Plants. Loose dried tea leavesTea refers to the agricultural products of the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various methods. "Tea" also refers to the aromatic beverage prepared from the cured leaves by combination with hot or boiling water,[1] and is the colloquial name for the Camellia sinensis plant itself.
After water, tea is the most widely-consumed beverage in the world.[2] It has a cooling, slightly bitter, astringent flavour.[3]
The four types of tea most commonly found on the market are black tea, oolong tea, green tea and white tea,[4] all of which can be made from the same bushes, processed differently, and in the case of fine white tea grown differently. Pu-erh tea, a double-fermented black tea, is also often classified as amongst the most popular types of tea.[5]
The term "herbal tea" usually refers to an infusion or tisane of leaves, flowers, fruit, herbs or other plant material that contains no Camellia sinensis.[6] The term "red tea" either refers to an infusion made from the South African rooibos plant, also containing no Camellia sinensis, or, in Chinese, Korean, Japanese and other East Asian languages, refers to black tea.
Contents [hide] 1 Cultivation 2 Processing and classification 3 Blending and additives 4 Content 5 Origin and history 5.1 Origin myths 5.2 China 5.3 Japan 5.4 Vietnam 5.5 Korea 5.6 Taiwan 5.7 Tea spreads to the world 5.8 United Kingdom 5.9 United States of America 5.10 India 5.11 Sri Lanka/Ceylon 5.12 Africa and South America 6 Tea and health 7 Etymology and cognates in other languages 7.1 The derivatives from tê 7.2 Derivatives from cha or chai 8 Tea culture 9 Preparation 9.1 Black tea 9.2 Green tea 9.3 Oolong tea (or Wulong) 9.4 Premium or delicate tea 9.5 Pu-erh tea (or Pu'er) 9.6 Serving 9.7 Adding milk to tea 9.8 Other additives 10 Economics of tea 11 Statistics 11.1 Production 11.1.1 Tea production certification 11.2 Trade 11.2.1 Export 11.2.2 Import 11.2.3 Prices 12 Packaging 12.1 Tea bags 12.2 Pyramid tea bags 12.3 Loose tea 12.4 Compressed tea 12.5 Instant tea 12.6 Canned tea 13 Storage 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 External links
[edit] Cultivation Camellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and sub-tropical climates. Nevertheless, some varieties can also tolerate marine climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall on the UK mainland[7] and Seattle in the United States.
In addition to a zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 50 inches of rainfall a year and prefer acidic soils.[8] Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1500 meters (5,000 ft): at these heights, the plants grow more slowly and acquire a better flavour.[9]
Only the top 1-2 inches of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called flushes.[10] A plant will grow a new flush every seven to ten days during the growing season.
A tea plant will grow into a tree if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are pruned to waist height for ease of plucking.[11]
Two principal varieties are used: the small-leaved China plant (C. sinensis sinensis), used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas (but not Pu-erh); and the large-leaved Assam plant (C. sinensis assamica), used in most Indian and other teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, there are many strains and modern Indian clonal varieties. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants:[12] tea is classified into (1) Assam type, characterized by the largest leaves; (2) China type, characterized by the smallest leaves; and (3) Cambod, characterized by leaves of intermediate size.[12]
Tea estates at Munnar, Kerala, India.
[edit] Processing and classification Main article: Tea processing A tea's type is determined by the processing which it undergoes. Leaves of Camellia sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize if not dried quickly after picking. The leaves turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This process, enzymatic oxidation, is called fermentation in the tea industry, although it is not a true fermentation: it is not caused by micro-organisms, and is not an anaerobic process. The next step in processing is to stop the oxidation process at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. With black tea this is done simultaneously with drying.
Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, the tea will grow fungi. The fungus causes real fermentation that will contaminate the tea with toxic and sometimes carcinogenic substances, as well as off-flavors, rendering the tea unfit for consumption.
Tea leaf processing methods (Simplified)Tea is traditionally classified based on the techniques with which it is produced and processed.[13]
White tea: Unwilted and unoxidized Yellow tea: Unwilted and unoxidized but allowed to yellow Green tea: Wilted and unoxidized Oolong: Wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized Black tea: Wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized Post-fermented tea: Green Tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost
[edit] Blending and additives
Tea weighing station north of Batumi, Russian Empire before 1915Main article: Tea blending and additives Almost all teas in bags and most other teas sold in the West are blends. Blending may occur in the tea-planting area (as in the case of Assam), or teas from many areas may be blended. The aim is to obtain better taste, higher price, or both, as a more expensive, better-tasting tea may cover the inferior taste of cheaper varieties.
Some teas are not pure varieties, but have been enhanced through additives or special processing. Tea is highly receptive to inclusion of various aromas; this may cause problems in processing, transportation and storage, but also allows for the design of an almost endless range of scented and flavored variants, such as vanilla, caramel, and many others.
[edit] Content Tea contains catechins, a type of antioxidant. In a fresh tea leaf, catechins can compose up to 30% of the dry weight. Catechins are highest in concentration in white and green teas, while black tea has substantially fewer due to its oxidative preparation.[14][15] Research by the U.S. Department of Agriculture has suggested that levels of antioxidants in green and black tea do not differ greatly, with green tea having an Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) of 1253 and black tea an ORAC of 1128 (measured in μmolTE/100g).[16] Tea also contains theanine and the stimulant caffeine at about 3% of its dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8 oz (250 ml) cup depending on type, brand[17] and brewing method.[18] Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline,[19] as well as fluoride[citation needed], with certain types of brick tea made from old leaves and stems having the highest levels.[20]
Dry tea has more caffeine by weight than coffee; nevertheless, more dried coffee is used than dry tea in preparing the beverage,[21] which mean that a cup of brewed tea contains significantly less caffeine than a cup of coffee of the same size.
Tea has no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.
[edit] Origin and history According to Mondal (2007, p. 519): "Camellia sinensis originated in southeast Asia, specifically around the intersection of latitude 29°N and longitude 98°E, the point of confluence of the lands of northeast India, north Burma, southwest China and Tibet. The plant was introduced to more than 52 countries, from this ‘centre of origin’."
Based on morphological differences between the Assamese and Chinese varieties, botanists have long asserted a dual botanical origin for tea; however, statistical cluster analysis, the same chromosome number (2n=30), easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids all appear to demonstrate a single place of origin for Camellia sinensis — the area including the northern part of Burma, and Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China.[22] According to this theory, tea plants in southeast Asia may have been the products of the 19th Century and 20th Century hybridizing experiments.[citation needed]
Yunnan Province has also been identified as "the birthplace of tea...the first area where humans figured out that eating tea leaves or brewing a cup could be pleasant".[23] Fengqing County in the Lincang City Prefecture of Yunnan Province is said to be home to the world's oldest cultivated tea tree, some 3,200 years old.[24]
[edit] Origin myths In one popular Chinese legend, Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inventor of agriculture and Chinese medicine was drinking a bowl of boiling water some time around 2737 BC when a few leaves were blown from a nearby tree into his water, changing the color. The emperor took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavor and restorative properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various herbs on himself, some of them poisonous, and found tea to work as an antidote.[25] Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's famous early work on the subject, Cha Jing.[26] A similar Chinese legend goes that the god of agriculture would chew the leaves, stems, and roots of various plants to discover medicinal herbs. If he consumed a poisonous plant, he would chew tea leaves to counteract the poison.[27]
A rather gruesome legend dates back to the Tang Dynasty. In the legend, Bodhidharma, the founder of Chan Buddhism, accidentally fell asleep after meditating in front of a wall for nine years. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his own eyelids. They fell to the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes.[28] Sometimes, another version of the story is told with Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhidharma[29].
Whether or not these legends have any basis in fact, tea has played a significant role in Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and a status symbol. It is not surprising, therefore, that theories of its origin are often religious or royal in nature.
A Ming Dynasty painting by artist Wen Zhengming illustrating scholars greeting in a tea ceremony Lu Yu's statue in Xi'an Illustration of the legend of monkeys harvesting tea. [edit] China Main article: History of tea in China The Chinese have consumed tea for thousands of years. People of the Han Dynasty used tea as medicine (though the first use of tea as a stimulant is unknown). China is considered to have the earliest records of tea consumption,[30][31] with records dating back to the 10th century BC.[30]
Laozi (ca. 600-517 BC), the classical Chinese philosopher, described tea as "the froth of the liquid jade" and named it an indispensable ingredient to the elixir of life. Legend has it that master Lao was saddened by society's moral decay and, sensing that the end of the dynasty was near, he journeyed westward to the unsettled territories, never to be seen again. While passing along the nation's border, he encountered and was offered tea by a customs inspector named Yin Hsi. Yin Hsi encouraged him to compile his teachings into a single book so that future generations might benefit from his wisdom. This then became known as the Dao De Jing, a collection of Laozi's sayings.
In 59 BC, **** Bao wrote the first known book with instructions on buying and preparing tea.
In 220 , famed physician and surgeon Hua Tuo wrote Shin Lun, in which he describes tea's ability to improve mental functions.
During the Sui Dynasty (589-618 AD) tea was introduced to Japan by Buddhist monks.
The Tang Dynasty writer Lu Yu's (simplified Chinese: 陆羽; traditional Chinese: 陸羽; pinyin: lùyǔ) Cha Jing (The Classic of Tea) （simplified Chinese: 茶经; traditional Chinese: 茶經; pinyin: chá jīng) is an early work on the subject. (See also Tea Classics) According to Cha Jing tea drinking was widespread. The book describes how tea plants were grown, the leaves processed, and tea prepared as a beverage. It also describes how tea was evaluated. The book also discusses where the best tea leaves were produced. Teas produced in this period were mainly tea bricks which were often used as currency, especially further from the center of the empire where coins lost their value.
During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea of Song included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by court society), but a new powdered form of tea emerged. Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again. The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century. Tea leaves were roasted and then crumbled rather than steamed. This is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea.
Tea production in China, historically, was a laborious process, conducted in distant and often poorly accessible regions. This led to the rise of many apocryphal stories and legends surrounding the harvesting process. For example, one story that has been told for many years is that of a village where monkeys pick tea. According to this legend, the villagers stand below the monkeys and taunt them. The monkeys, in turn, become angry, and grab handfuls of tea leaves and throw them at the villagers.[32] There are products sold today that claim to be harvested in this manner, but no reliable commentators have observed this firsthand, and most doubt that it happened at all.[33] For many hundreds of years the commercially-used tea tree has been, in shape, more of a bush than a tree.[34] "Monkey picked tea" is more likely a name of certain varieties than a description of how it was obtained.[35]
In 1391, the Ming court issued a decree that only loose tea would be accepted as a "tribute." As a result, loose tea production increased and processing techniques advanced. Soon, most tea was distributed in full-leaf, loose form and steeped in earthenware vessels.
[edit] Japan
Ancient Tea Urns used by merchants to store tea. Japanese tea ceremonyMain article: History of tea in Japan Tea use spread to Japan about the sixth century.[36] Tea became a drink of the religious classes in Japan when Japanese priests and envoys, sent to China to learn about its culture, brought tea to Japan. Ancient recordings indicate the first batch of tea seeds were brought by a priest named Saichō (最澄?, 767-822) in 805 and then by another named Kūkai (空海?, 774-835) in 806. It became a drink of the royal classes when Emperor Saga (嵯峨天皇?), the Japanese emperor, encouraged the growth of tea plants. Seeds were imported from China, and cultivation in Japan began.
In 1191, the famous Zen priest Eisai (栄西?, 1141-1215) brought back tea seeds to Kyoto. Some of the tea seeds were given to the priest Myoe Shonin, and became the basis for Uji tea. The oldest tea specialty book in Japan, Kissa Yōjōki (喫茶養生記?, How to Stay Healthy by Drinking Tea), was written by Eisai. The two-volume book was written in 1211 after his second and last visit to China. The first sentence states, “Tea is the ultimate mental and medical remedy and has the ability to make one’s life more full and complete." Eisai was also instrumental in introducing tea consumption to the warrior class, which rose to political prominence after the Heian Period.
Green tea became a staple among cultured people in Japan—a brew for the gentry and the Buddhist priesthood alike. Production grew and tea became increasingly accessible, though still a privilege enjoyed mostly by the upper classes. The tea ceremony of Japan was introduced from China in the 15th century by Buddhists as a semi-religious social custom. The modern tea ceremony developed over several centuries by Zen Buddhist monks under the original guidance of the monk Sen no Rikyū (千 利休?, 1522-1591). In fact, both the beverage and the ceremony surrounding it played a prominent role in feudal diplomacy.
In 1738, Soen Nagatani developed Japanese sencha (煎茶?), literally roasted tea, which is an unfermented form of green tea. It is the most popular form of tea in Japan today. In 1835, Kahei Yamamoto developed gyokuro (玉露?), literally jewel dew, by shading tea trees during the weeks leading up to harvesting. At the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912), machine manufacturing of green tea was introduced and began replacing handmade tea.
[edit] Vietnam Vietnamese green teas have been largely unknown outside of mainland Asia until the present day. Recent free-enterprise initiatives are introducing these green teas to outside countries through new export activities.
Types:
Lotus tea is a specialty product of the Vietnamese tea industry. Generally, high-quality green tea leaves are placed within lotus flowers for a day to acquire the scent, then are removed and packaged. A higher grade of lotus tea is made with lotus petals mixed in with high quality green tea leaves. Green tea style of Vietnam is to roll the leaves gently into crescents, and minimal handling. Vietnamese green teas are typically very potent. They are best brewed for most tastes for under 2 minutes using water temperature of 160°F. Beyond this time the tea will acquire a bitter taste that is nevertheless fancied by many tea lovers, as it reflects the potency of the tea leaves. Some fanciers will brew 3-4 times from one set of leaves, preferring the narrower flavor range of the later brewings. Jasmine tea is produced in two grades similar to lotus tea. Lotus tea is considered a specialty and is reserved for events or special meals. Jasmine tea is popular as a "chaser" for Vietnamese iced coffee, and is poured into the glass after the coffee is consumed, allowed to chill, and then enjoyed as a follow-up to the iced coffee in coffee shop cafes, particularly in the night life of major cities, where coffee shops are a popular social rendezvous on hot evenings. Artichoke Tea Vietnamese teas are produced in many areas that have been known for tea-house "retreats". For example some are, located amidst immense tea forests of the Lam**** highlands, where there is a community of ancient Ruong houses built at the end of the 18th century.
[edit] Korea See also: Korean tea ceremony and Korean tea
Darye, Korean tea ceremonyThe first historical record documenting the offering of tea to an ancestral god describes a rite in the year 661 in which a tea offering was made to the spirit of King Suro, the founder of the Geumgwan ***a Kingdom (42-562). Records from the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) show that tea offerings were made in Buddhist temples to the spirits of revered monks.
During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the royal Yi family and the aristocracy used tea for simple rites. The "Day Tea Rite" was a common daytime ceremony, whereas the "Special Tea Rite" was reserved for specific occasions. Toward the end of the Joseon Dynasty, commoners joined the trend and used tea for ancestral rites, following the Chinese example based on Zhu Xi's text formalities of Family.
Stoneware was common, ceramic more frequent, mostly made in provincial kilns, with porcelain rare, imperial porcelain with dragons the rarest. The earliest kinds of tea used in tea ceremonies were heavily pressed cakes of black tea, the equivalent of aged pu-erh tea still popular in China. However, importation of tea plants by Buddhist monks brought a more delicate series of teas into Korea, and the tea ceremony. Green tea, "chaksol" or "chugno," is most often served. However other teas such as "Byeoksoryung" Chunhachoon, Woojeon, Jakseol, Jookro, Okcheon, as well as native chrysanthemum tea, persimmon leaf tea, or mugwort tea may be served at different times of the year.
[edit] Taiwan Taiwan is famous for the making of Oolong tea and green tea, as well as many western-styled teas. Bubble Tea or "Zhen Zhu Nai Cha" is black tea mixed with sweetened condensed milk and tapioca. Since the island was known to Westerners for many centuries as Formosa — short for the Portuguese Ilha Formosa, or "beautiful island" — tea grown in Taiwan is often identified by that name.
Middle Eastern tea [edit] Tea spreads to the world
A conical urn-shaped silver-plated samovar used for boiling water for tea in Russia and some Middle eastern countriesThe earliest record of tea in a more occidental writing is said to be found in the statement of an Arabian traveler, that after the year 879 the main sources of revenue in Canton were the duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo records the deposition of a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary augmentation of the tea taxes. The travelers Giovanni Batista Ramusio (1559), L. Almeida (1576), Maffei (1588), and Teixeira (1610) also mentioned tea. In 1557, Portugal established a trading port in Macau and word of the Chinese drink "chá" spread quickly, but there is no mention of them bringing any samples home. In the early 17th century, a ship of the Dutch East India Company brought the first green tea leaves to Amsterdam from China. Tea was known in France by 1636. It enjoyed a brief period of popularity in Paris around 1648. The history of tea in Russia can also be traced back to the seventeenth century. Tea was first offered by China as a gift to Czar Michael I in 1618. The Russian ambassador tried the drink; he did not care for it and rejected the offer, delaying tea's Russian introduction by fifty years. In 1689, tea was regularly imported from China to Russia via a caravan of hundreds of camels traveling the year-long journey, making it a precious commodity at the time. Tea was appearing in German apothecaries by 1657 but never gained much esteem except in coastal areas such as Ostfriesland.[37] Tea first appeared publicly in England during the 1650s, where it was introduced through coffee houses. From there it was introduced to British colonies in America and elsewhere.
[edit] United Kingdom
Tea plantation in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia.The importing of tea into Britain began in the 1660s with the marriage of King Charles II to Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza as she brought to the court the habit of drinking tea.[38] On 25 September of the same year Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary: "I did send for a cup of tee (a China drink) of which I never had drank before".[39] It is probable that early imports came via Amsterdam or through sailors on eastern boats.[38]
Regular trade began in Guangzhou (Canton).[38] Trade was controlled by two monopolies: the Chinese Hongs (trading companies) and the British East India Company.[38] The Hongs acquired tea from 'the tea men' who had an elaborate supply chain into the mountains and provinces where the tea was grown.[38]
The East India Company brought back many products, of which tea was just one, but it was to prove one of the most successful.[38] It was initially promoted as a medicinal beverage or tonic.[38] By the end of the seventeenth century tea was taken as a drink, albeit mainly by the aristocracy.[38] In 1690 nobody would have predicted that by 1750 tea would be the national drink.[38] The origin of large trade in tea was the need for a return cargo from the East Indies. Merchantmen ships delivered fabrics manufactured in Britain to India and China but would return empty or partially full. To solve this problem the East India Company began a vigorous public relations campaign to popularise tea among the common people in Britain and develop it as a viable return cargo.
The escalation of tea importation and sales over the period 1690 to 1750 is mirrored closely by the increase in importation and sales of cane sugar: the British were not drinking just tea but sweet tea.[38] Thus, two of Britain's trading triangles were to meet within the cup: the sugar sourced from Britain's trading triangle encompassing Britain, Africa and the West Indies and the tea from the triangle encompassing Britain, India and China.[38]
Britain had to pay China for its tea, but China had little need of British goods, so much of it was paid for with silver bullion. Although the Chinese did not need the silver, China's government eventually accepted the silver as the payments for the first few good Chinese tea shipments.[citation needed] A few years on, India used its opium to influence the then East India Company, Britain to pay all of their gold and silver for their addiction of Indian opium, and forced the Chinese Tea Growers to accept the illegal Indian opium for the exchange of shipments of the good Chinese tea.[citation needed] Critics of tea at this time would point to the damage caused to Britain's wealth by this loss of bullion.[38] As an alternative, Britain began producing opium in India and forced China to trade tea for opium as part of several treaties after the Opium wars. Tea became an important lubricant of Britain's global trade, contributing to Britain's global dominance by the end of the eighteenth century. To this day tea is seen as a symbol of 'Britishness', but also, to some, as a symbol of British Colonialism.[38] The London 2012 section of the paralympic handover in Beijing included tea as part of the routine.[clarification needed]
[edit] United States of America While coffee is by far more popular, hot brewed black tea is enjoyed both with meals and as a refreshment by much of the population. Similarly, iced tea is consumed throughout. In the Southern states sweet tea, sweetened with large amounts of sugar or an artificial sweetener and chilled, is the fashion. Outside the South, sweet tea is sometimes found, but primarily because of cultural migration and commercialization.[citation needed]
The American specialty tea market has quadrupled in the years from 1993-2008, now being worth $6.8 billion a year.[40] Similar to the trend of better coffee and better wines, this tremendous increase was partly due to consumers who choose to trade up. Specialty tea houses and retailers also started to pop up during this period.[41]
The Boston Tea Party was an act of protest by the American colonists against the British Government in which they destroyed many crates of tea belonging to the British East India Company on ships in Boston Harbor. The incident, which took place on Thursday, December 16, 1773, has been seen as helping to spark the American Revolution.[citation needed]
Tea Garden in Assam, India [edit] India See also: Assam tea, Darjeeling tea, Masala chai, and Nilgiri tea Tea had been known for millennia in India as a medicinal plant, but was not drunk for pleasure until the British began to establish plantations in the 19th century. The Chinese variety is used for Darjeeling tea, and the Assamese variety, native to the Indian state of Assam, everywhere else. The British started commercial tea plantations in India and in Ceylon: "In 1824 tea plants were discovered in the hills along the frontier between Burma and the Indian state of Assam. The British introduced tea culture into India in 1836 and into Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1867. At first they used seeds from China, but later seeds from the Assam plant were used."[42] Only black tea was produced until recent decades.
India was the top producer of tea for nearly a century, but was displaced by China as the top tea producer in the 21st century.[43] Indian tea companies have acquired a number of iconic foreign tea enterprises including British brands Tetley and Typhoo.[43] While India is the largest consumer of tea worldwide, the per-capita consumption of tea in India remains a modest 750 grams per person every year.[43] A lot of huge companies have emerged including 'Golden Tips Tea Co', and many other major brands that specialise and emphasize on Darjeeling tea and tourism in Darjeeling, one of the prime beautiful locations famous for tea.
[edit] Sri Lanka/Ceylon
Tea Garden in Sri LankaMain article: Tea production in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is renowned for its high quality tea and as the fourth biggest tea producing country globally, after China, India and Kenya (See the chart below) and has a production share of 9% in the international sphere, and one of the world's leading exporters with a share of around 19% of the global demand. The total extent of land under tea cultivation has been assessed at approximately 187,309 hectares.
The plantations started by the British were initially taken over by the government in the 1960s, but have been privatized and are now run by 'plantation companies' which own a few 'estates' or tea plantations each.
Ceylon tea is divided into 3 groups as Upcountry, Mid country and Low country tea based on the geography of the land on which it is grown. [44]
[edit] Africa and South America Africa and South America have seen greatly increased tea production in recent decades, the great majority for export to Europe and North America respectively, produced on large estates, often owned by tea companies from the export markets. Almost all production is of basic mass-market teas, processed by the Crush, Tear, Curl method. Kenya is now the fourth largest global producer (figures below), after China and India, and is now the largest exporter of tea to the United Kingdom. There is also a great consumption of tea in Chile[citation needed]. In South Africa, the non-Camellia sinensis beverage rooibos is popular. In South America, yerba mate, a tisane, is popular.
[edit] Tea and health Main article: Tea and health The health benefits of tea is a controversial topic with many proponents and detractors. An article from the Nutrition (1999, pp. 946–949) journal as related on PubMed states:
The possible beneficial effects of tea consumption in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases have been demonstrated in animal models and suggested by studies in vitro. Similar beneficial effects, however, have not been convincingly demonstrated in humans: beneficial effects have been demonstrated in some studies but not in others. If such beneficial effects do exist in humans, they are likely to be mild, depending on many other lifestyle-related factors, and could be masked by confounding factors in certain populations. Another concern is that the amounts of tea consumed by humans are lower than the doses required for demonstrating the disease-prevention effects in animal models. Caution should be applied, however, in the use of high concentrations of tea for disease prevention. Ingestion of large amounts of tea may cause nutritional and other problems because of the caffeine content and the strong binding activities of tea polyphenols, although there are no solid data on the harmful effects of tea consumption. More research is needed to elucidate the biologic activities of green and black tea and to determine the optimal amount of tea consumption for possible health-beneficial effects.
In abstract, the health benefits of tea have been shown in animal studies, but at doses much higher than regularly consumed by humans, at which dosage levels may prove to be harmful to health.
Several of the potential health benefits proposed for tea are outlined in this excerpt from Mondal (2007, pp. 519–520) as following:
Tea leaves contain more than 700 chemicals, among which the compounds closely related to human health are flavanoides, amino acids, vitamins (C, E and K), caffeine and polysaccharides. Moreover, tea drinking has recently proven to be associated with cell-mediated immune function of the human body. Tea plays an important role in improving beneficial intestinal microflora, as well as providing immunity against intestinal disorders and in protecting cell membranes from oxidative damage. Tea also prevents dental caries due to the presence of fluorine. The role of tea is well established in normalizing blood pressure, lipid depressing activity, prevention of coronary heart diseases and diabetes by reducing the blood-glucose activity. Tea also possesses germicidal and germistatic activities against various gram-positive and gram negative human pathogenic bacteria. Both green and black tea infusions contain a number of antioxidants, mainly catechins that have anti-carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic and anti-tumoric properties.
In a large study of over 11,000 Scottish men and women completed in 1993 and published in the 1999 Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (1999, pp. 481-487), there was an increase in the risk of coronary disease with the regular consumption of tea, although it disappeared after adjustment for confounding factors (age and occupational status).
[edit] Etymology and cognates in other languages The Chinese character for tea is 茶, but it is pronounced differently in the various Chinese dialects. Two pronunciations have made their way into other languages around the world.[45] One is tê, which comes from the Amoy Min Nan dialect, spoken around the port of Xiamen (Amoy). This pronunciation is believed to come from the old words for tea 梌 (tú) or 荼 (tú). The other is chá, used by the Cantonese dialect spoken around the ports of Guangzhou (Canton), Hong Kong, Macau, and in overseas Chinese communities, as well as in the Mandarin dialect of northern China. This term was used in ancient times to describe the first flush harvest of tea. Yet another different pronunciation is zu, used in the Wu dialect spoken around Shanghai. The words for tea in Korea and Japan are 차 and 茶 (ちゃ), respectively. Both are transliterated as cha. (In Japanese, it is sometimes 御茶 (おちゃ) or ocha, which is more polite.)
[edit] The derivatives from tê Language Name Language Name Language Name Language Name Language Name Afrikaans tee Armenian, Catalan te Czech té or thé (1) Danish te Dutch thee English tea Esperanto teo Estonian tee Faroese te Finnish tee French thé West Frisian tee Galician té German Tee Hebrew תה, te Hungarian tea Icelandic te Indonesian teh Irish tae Italian tè or thè Javanese tèh Korean 茶,다 da [ta](2) scientific Latin thea Latvian tēja Leonese té Limburgish tiè Low Saxon Tee [tʰɛˑɪ] or Tei [tʰaˑɪ] Malay teh Norwegian te Occitan tè Sesotho tea,chá Scots Gaelic tì, teatha Singhalese thé Spanish té Scots tea [tiː] ~ [teː] Sundanese entèh Swedish te Tamil தேநீர் thenīr (nīr = water) "theyilai" means "tea leaf" (ilai=leaf) Telugu తేనీళ్ళు tēnīru Welsh te
Note: (1) té or thé, but this term is considered archaic and literary expression. Since roughly second half of 20th century, čaj is used for "tea" in Czech language, see the following tabletable (3). (2)차(cha) is an alternative word for "tea" in Korean; see (4)
[edit] Derivatives from cha or chai Language Name Language Name Language Name Language Name Language Name Armenian tey Albanian çaj Amharic ሻይ shai Arabic شاي shāy Assamese saah Aramaic pronounced chai Azerbaijani çay Bangla চা cha Bosnian čaj Bulgarian чай chai Capampangan cha Cebuano tsa Croatian čaj Czech čaj (2) English char, slang Georgian ჩაი, chai Greek τσάι tsái Gujarati ચા cha Hindi चाय chai Ilocano tsa-a, or i-tsa Japanese 茶, チャ, cha Kannada ಚಹಾ Chaha Kazakh шай shai Kyrgyz чай, chai Khasi sha Konkani चाऊ chau Korean 茶,차, cha(4) Macedonian чај, čaj Malayalam "chaaya" Marathi चहा chahaa Mongolian цай, tsai Nepali chiya चिया Oriya cha Pashto چای chai Persian چای chai Punjabi ਚਾਹ chah Portuguese chá Romanian ceai Russian чай, chai Serbian чај, čaj Slovak čaj Slovene čaj Somali shaah Swahili chai Sylheti saah Tagalog tsaa Thai ชา, cha Tibetan ཇ་ ja Tlingit cháayu Turkish çay Turkmen çay Ukrainian чай chai Urdu چا ٔےchai Uzbek choy Vietnamese *trà and chè Tamil *theyneer and tee (5)
(5) They are both direct derivatives of the Chinese 茶; the latter term is used mainly in the north and describes a tea made with freshly-picked leaves. The Polish word for a tea-kettle is czajnik, which could be derived directly from cha or from the cognate Russian word. However, tea in Polish is herbata, which, as well as Lithuanian arbata, was derived from the Latin herba thea, meaning "tea herb".
It is tempting to correlate these names with the route that was used to deliver tea to these cultures, although the relation is far from simple at times. As an example, the first tea to reach Britain was traded by the Dutch from Fujian, which uses te, and although later most British trade went through Canton, which uses cha, the Fujianese pronunciation continued to be the more popular.
In Ireland, or at least in Dublin, the term cha is sometimes used for "tea", as is pre-vowel-shift pronunciation "tay" (from which the Irish Gaelic word "tae" is derived). Char was a common slang term for tea throughout British Empire and Commonwealth military forces in the 19th and 20th centuries, crossing over into civilian usage.
The British English slang word "char" for "tea" arose from its Mandarin Chinese pronunciation "cha" with its spelling affected by the fact that ar is a more common way of representing the phoneme /ɑː/ in English.
In North America, the word chai is used to refer almost exclusively to the Indian masala chai (spiced tea) beverage.
The original pronunciation "cha" in the Cantonese and Mandarin languages has no [j] ending. The forms with this ending in many Eurasian languages come from the Chinese compound word denoting "tea leaves" (Mandarin 茶叶 chá yè).[citation needed] The different articulations of the word for tea into the two main groups: "teh-derived" (Min Chinese dialects) and "cha-derived" (Mandarin, Cantonese and other non-Min Chinese dialects) is an interesting one, as it reveals the particular Chinese local cultures where non-Chinese nations acquired their tea and "tea cultures". Not surprisingly, India and the Arab world most likely got their tea cultures from the Cantonese or the Southwestern Mandarin speakers, whereas the Russians got theirs from the northern Mandarin speakers. The Portuguese, the first Europeans to import the herb in large amounts, took the Cantonese form "chá", as used in their trading posts in the south of China, especially Macau. Conversely, other Western Europeans who copied the Min articulation "teh" probably traded with the Hokkienese while in Southeast Asia.
Quite recently, no earlier than 1980, "chai" entered North American English with a particular meaning: Indian masala black tea. Of course this is not the case in other languages, where "chai" usually just means black tea (as people traditionally drink more black tea than green outside of East Asia). English is thus one of the few languages that allow for the dual articulations of "tea" into a "teh-derived" word and a "cha-derived" one, such as Moroccan colloquial Arabic (Darija): in the case of Moroccan Arabic, "ash-shay" means "generic, or black Middle Eastern tea" whereas "atay" means a specialty tea: Zhejiang or Fujian green tea with fresh mint leaves. The Moroccans are said to have acquired a unique penchant in the Arab world for East Chinese green tea after the ruler Mulay Hassan exchanged some European hostages captured by the Barbary Pirates for a whole ship of Chinese tea. They have thus acquired a word for this special tea different from the generic "ash-shay". See Moroccan tea culture
Perhaps the only place in which a word unrelated to tea is used to describe the beverage is South America (particularly Andean countries), because a similar stimulant beverage, yerba mate, was consumed there long before tea arrived.
[edit] Tea culture Main article: Tea culture In many cultures, tea is often had at high class social events, such as afternoon tea and the tea party. It may be consumed early in the day to heighten alertness; it contains theophylline and bound caffeine[3] (sometimes called "theine"), although there are also decaffeinated teas. In many cultures such as Arab culture tea is a focal point for social gatherings. Moreover, the history of tea in Iran - in the Persian culture- is another to explore. One source cites: "the first thing you will be offered when a guest at an Iranian household is tea".[46]
There are tea ceremonies which have arisen in different cultures, Japan's complex, formal and serene one being one of the most well known. Other examples are the Chinese tea ceremony which uses some traditional ways of brewing tea. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is the Gongfu tea ceremony, which typically uses small Yixing clay teapots and oolong tea.
The American poet Wallace Stevens, a tea-fancier, is credited by Eleanor Cook with a "delicately implicit trope of drinking tea as a metaphor for reading (ingesting a drink from leaves)."[47] See for instance his "Tea".
[edit] Preparation For a more detailed treatment of tea preparation and serving habits, particularly in non-Western countries, see Tea culture.
Korean tea kettle over hot coalThe traditional method of making a cup of tea is to place loose tea leaves, either directly, or in a tea infuser, into a tea pot or teacup and pour hot water over the leaves. After a couple of minutes the leaves are usually removed again, either by removing the infuser, or by straining the tea while serving.
Most green teas should be allowed to steep for about three minutes, although some types of tea require as much as ten. The strength of the tea should be varied by changing the amount of tea leaves used, not by changing the steeping time. The amount of tea to be used per amount of water differs from tea to tea but one basic recipe may be one slightly heaped teaspoon of tea (about 5 ml) for each teacup of water (200 ml) (8 oz) prepared as above. Stronger teas, such as Assam, to be drunk with milk are often prepared with more leaves, and more delicate high grown teas such as a Darjeeling are prepared with a little less (as the stronger mid-flavors can overwhelm the champagne notes).
The best temperature for brewing tea depends on its type. Teas that have little or no oxidation period, such as a green or white tea, are best brewed at lower temperatures between 60 °C and 85 °C (140-185 °F), while teas with longer oxidation periods should be brewed at higher temperatures around 100 °C (212 °F).[48] The higher temperatures are required to extract the large, complex, flavorful phenolic molecules found in fermented tea, although boiling the water reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.
Some tea sorts are often brewed several times using the same tea leaves. Historically, in China, tea is divided into a number of infusions. The first infusion is immediately poured out to wash the tea, and then the second and further infusions are drunk. The third through fifth are nearly always considered the best infusions of tea, although different teas open up differently and may require more infusions of hot water to bring them to life.[49]
One way to taste a tea, throughout its entire process, is to add hot water to a cup containing the leaves and after about 30 seconds to taste the tea. As the tea leaves unfold (known as "The Agony of the Leaves") they give up various parts of themselves to the water and thus the taste evolves. Continuing this from the very first flavours to the time beyond which the tea is quite stewed will allow an appreciation of the tea throughout its entire length.[50]
Black tea infusion. [edit] Black tea The water for black teas should be added near boiling point 210 °F (99 °C). Many of the active substances in black tea do not develop at temperatures lower than 90 °C. For some more delicate teas lower temperatures are recommended. The temperature will have as large an effect on the final flavor as the type of tea used. The most common fault when making black tea is to use water at too low a temperature. Since boiling point drops with increasing altitude, this makes it difficult to brew black tea properly in mountainous areas. It is also recommended that the teapot be warmed before preparing tea, easily done by adding a small amount of boiling water to the pot, swirling briefly, before discarding. Black teas are usually brewed for about 4 minutes and should not be allowed to steep for less than 30 seconds or more than about five minutes (a process known as brewing or mashing in the UK, specifically in Yorkshire [51]). Longer steeping times make the tea bitter (at this point it is referred to as being stewed in the UK). When the tea has brewed long enough to suit the tastes of the drinker, it should be strained while serving. The popular varieties of black tea include the Assam tea, the Darjeeling tea and the black Ceylon tea.
[edit] Green tea Water for green tea, according to most accounts, should be around 80 °C to 85 °C (176 °F to 185 °F); the higher the quality of the leaves, the lower the temperature. Hotter water will burn green-tea leaves, producing a bitter taste. Preferably, the container in which the tea is steeped, the mug, or teapot should also be warmed beforehand so that the tea does not immediately cool down. High-quality green and white teas can have new water added as many as five or more times, depending on variety, at increasingly high temperatures. Recently, green tea (as well as some black teas) have been shown to significantly increase interferon levels in tea consumers, which lends credence to the theory that some teas help boost the immune system.[52]
[edit] Oolong tea (or Wulong) Oolong teas should be brewed around 90 °C to 100 °C (194 °F to 212 °F), and again the brewing vessel should be warmed before pouring in the water. Yixing purple clay teapots are the traditional brewing vessel for oolong tea. For best results use spring water, as the minerals in spring water tend to bring out more flavor in the tea. High quality oolong can be brewed multiple times from the same leaves, and unlike green tea it improves with reuse. It is common to brew the same leaves three to five times, the third steeping usually being the best.
[edit] Premium or delicate tea Some teas, especially green teas and delicate Oolong teas, are steeped for shorter periods, sometimes less than 30 seconds. Using a tea strainer separates the leaves from the water at the end of the brewing time if a tea bag is not being used. However black Darjeeling tea, the premium Indian tea, needs a longer than average steeping time. Elevation and time of harvest offer varying taste profiles, proper storage and water quality also have a large impact on taste.
[edit] Pu-erh tea (or Pu'er) Pu-erh teas require boiling water for infusion. Some prefer to quickly rinse pu-erh for several seconds with boiling water to remove tea dust which accumulates from the aging process. Infuse pu-erh at the boiling point (100 °C or 212 °F), and allow to steep for 30 seconds or up to five minutes.
[edit] Serving In order to preserve the pre-tannin tea without requiring it all to be poured into cups, a second teapot may be employed. The steeping pot is best unglazed earthenware; Yixing pots are the best known of these, famed for the high quality clay from which they are made. The serving pot is generally porcelain, which retains the heat better. Larger teapots are a post-19th century invention, as tea before this time was very rare and very expensive. Experienced tea-drinkers often insist that the tea should not be stirred around while it is steeping (sometimes called winding in the UK). This, they say, will do little to strengthen the tea, but is likely to bring the tannins out in the same way that brewing too long will do. For the same reason one should not squeeze the last drops out of a teabag; if stronger tea is desired, more
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Coffee From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the beverage. For the bean, see coffee beans. For other uses, see coffee (disambiguation). Coffee A cup of coffee Type Hot or cold beverage Country of origin Ethiopia (human use) Yemen (beverage) Introduced Approx. 15th century AD (beverage) Color Brown Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. They are seeds of "coffee cherries" that grow on trees in over 50 countries. [1] Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide.[2]
It is supposed that the Ethiopians, the ancestors of today's Galla tribe, were the first to have discovered and recognized the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant.[3] However, no direct evidence has ever been found revealing exactly where in Africa coffee grew, or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it there earlier than the seventeenth century.[3] The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.[3] From Yemen, coffee spread to Egypt and Ethiopia, and by the 15th century, had reached Armenia, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.[4]
Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown species are Coffea canephora (also known as Coffea robusta) and Coffea arabica; less popular species are Liberica, Excelsa, Stenophylla, Mauritiana, Racemosa. These are cultivated primarily in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted, undergoing several physical and chemical changes. They are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways.
Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.[5] It was banned in Ottoman Turkey in the 17th century for political reasons,[6] and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.
Coffee is an important export commodity. In 2004, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries,[7] and in 2005, it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value.[8]
Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are positive or negative is still disputed.[9]
Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Biology 4 Cultivation 4.1 Production 4.2 Ecological effects 4.3 Economics 4.4 Coffee as a commodity 5 Processing 5.1 Roasting 5.2 Storage 5.3 Preparation 5.4 Presentation 5.5 Types of popular coffee beverages 6 Social aspects 7 Health and pharmacology 7.1 Caffeine content 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links
[edit] Etymology The term coffee was introduced to Europe by the Ottoman Turkish kahve, which is, in turn, derived from the Arabic: قهوة, qahweh.[10][11] The origin of the Arabic term is derived either from the name of the Kaffa region in western Ethiopia, where coffee was cultivated, or by a truncation of qahwat al-būnn, meaning "wine of the bean" in Arabic. The English word coffee first came to be used in the early to mid-1600s, but early forms of the word date to the last decade of the 1500s.[12] In Ethiopia's neighbor Eritrea, "būnn" (also meaning "wine of the bean" in Tigrinya) is used.[13] The Amharic and Afan Oromo name for coffee is bunna.
[edit] History Main article: History of coffee
Over the door of a Leipzig coffeeshop is a sculptural representation of a man in Turkish dress, receiving a cup of coffee from a boy.It is supposed that the Ethiopians, the ancestors of today's Galla tribe, were the first to have discovered and recognized the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant.[3] However, no direct evidence has ever been found revealing exactly where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it there earlier than the seventeenth century.[3] The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal.[3] The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.[3] From Ethiopia, coffee spread to Egypt and Yemen[14]. It was in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed, similar to how it is done today. By the 15th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.[4]
In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East:[15]
“ A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu. ”
From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between Venice and North Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Italy in 1645.[4] The Dutch were the first to import coffee on a large scale, and they were among the first to defy the Arab prohibition on the exportation of plants or unroasted seeds when Pieter van den Broeck smuggled seedlings from Aden into Europe in 1616.[16] The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.[17] The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711.[18] Through the efforts of the British East India Company, coffee became popular in England as well. It was introduced in France in 1657, and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated Turks.[19]
When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as it had been in Europe. During the Revolutionary War, however, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants.[20] After the War of 1812, during which Britain temporarily cut off access to tea imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew, and high demand during the American Civil War together with advances in brewing technology secured the position of coffee as an everyday commodity in the United States.[21]
Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many Third World countries. Over one hundred million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income (Ponte 1). Coffee has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia[22] as well as many Central American countries.(1)
[edit] Biology Main article: Coffea
Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seedsThe Coffea plant is native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia.[23] It belongs to a genus of ten species of flowering plants of the family Rubiaceae. It is an evergreen shrub or small tree that may grow 5 meters tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 100–150 millimeters long and 60 millimeters wide. It produces clusters of fragrant white flowers that bloom simultaneously. The fruit berry is oval, about 15 millimeters long,[24] and green when immature, but ripens to yellow, then crimson, becoming black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries[25] have only one; these are called peaberries.[26] Berries ripen in seven to nine months.
[edit] Cultivation Main article: Coffee varieties Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation.[24]
Map showing areas of coffee cultivation: r:Coffea canephora m:Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica a:Coffea arabicaThe two main cultivated species of the coffee plant are Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica. Arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica.[23] However, C. canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be cultivated in environments where C. arabica will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica.[27] For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some espresso blends to provide a better foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost.[28] Other cultivated species include Coffea liberica and Coffea esliaca, believed to be indigenous to Liberia and southern Sudan, respectively.[27]
Most arabica coffee beans originate from either Latin America, eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and central Africa, throughout southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil.[23] Beans from different countries or regions usually have distinctive characteristics such as flavor, aroma, body, and acidity.[29] These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee's growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing.[30] Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java or Kona.
[edit] Production Brazil is the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by Vietnam and Colombia the last of which produces a much softer coffee.
Top ten green coffee producers — Tonnes (2008) and Bags thousands (2007) Country Tonnes (1) Bags (2) Footnote Brazil 17,000,000 36,070 Vietnam 15,580,000 18,000 * Colombia 9,400,000 12,400 F Indonesia 2,770,554 6,446 * Ethiopia 1,705,446 5,733 * Mexico 962,000 4,500 F India 954,000 4,367 F Peru 677,000 4,250 est. 2008 Guatemala 568,000 4,000 F Honduras 370,000 3,833 F World 7,742,675 118,920 A No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data, C = calculated figure, A = aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates)
Source (1): Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Devision Source (2):International Coffee Organization
[show]v • d • eLists of countries by agricultural output rankings
Lists of countries · Lists by country · List of international rankings
[edit] Ecological effects Main article: Coffee and the environment
A flowering Coffea arabica tree in a Brazilian plantationOriginally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees, which provided habitat for many animals and insects.[31] This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method or "shade-grown". Many farmers have decided to switch their production method to sun cultivation, a method in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides.[32] When compared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.[citation needed] In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and serves as a habitat for many species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices.[31] The American Birding Association has led a campaign for "shade-grown" and organic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested.[33] However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare poorly to native forest in terms of habitat value.[34]
Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. According to New Scientist, it takes about 140 litres of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.[35]
[edit] Economics Main article: Economics of coffee See also: List of countries by coffee consumption per capita Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North America and Europe.[2] Worldwide, 6.7 million metric tons of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and the forecast is a rise to 7 million metric tons annually by 2010.[36]
Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, but in recent years, Vietnam has become a major producer of robusta beans.[37] Indonesia is the third-largest exporter and the largest producer of washed arabica coffee. Robusta coffees, traded in London at much lower prices than New York's arabica, are preferred by large industrial clients, such as multinational roasters and instant coffee producers because of the lower cost.
The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price, began with the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.[38][39] A number of studies have shown that fair trade coffee has a positive impact on the communities that grow it. A study in 2002 found that fair trade strengthened producer organizations, improved returns to small producers, and positively affected their quality of life.[40] A 2003 study concluded that fair trade has "greatly improved the well-being of small-scale coffee farmers and their families"[41] by providing access to credit and external development funding[42] and greater access to training, giving them the ability to improve the quality of their coffee.[43] The families of fair trade producers were also more stable than those who were not involved in fair trade, and their children had better access to education.[44] A 2005 study of Bolivian coffee producers concluded that fair trade certification has had a positive impact on local coffee prices, economically benefiting all coffee producers, fair trade-certified or not.[45]
The production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown in recent years as some local and national coffee chains have started to offer fair trade alternatives.[46]
[edit] Coffee as a commodity While coffee is not technically a commodity (it is fresh produce; its value is directly affected by the length of time it is held), coffee is bought and sold by roasters, investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity. Coffee futures contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) under ticker symbol KT, with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and December.[47] Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for robusta coffee are traded on the London Liffe exchange and, since 2007, on the New York ICE exchange.
[edit] Processing
[edit] Roasting Main articles: Coffee processing and Coffee roasting
Roasted coffee beansCoffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee. First, coffee berries are picked, generally by hand. Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds—usually called beans—are fermented to remove the slimy layer of mucilage still present on the bean. When the fermentation is finished, the beans are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of highly polluted coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried. The best (but least utilized) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee; then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African Coffee is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method. Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee beans dry is to let them sit on a cement patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee beans, though this is generally in places where the humidity is very high.[48]
The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.[49] The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for packaging. The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches 200°C, though different varieties of beans differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates.[50] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches in the bean, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, changing the color of the bean.[51] Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils, acids, and caffeine weaken, changing the flavor; at 205°C, other oils start to develop.[50] One of these oils is caffeol, created at about 200°C, which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[17]
Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted beans illuminated with a light source in the near infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee’s relative degree of roast or flavor development. Such devices are routinely used for quality assurance by coffee-roasting businesses.
Darker roasts are generally smoother, because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have more caffeine, resulting in a slight bitterness, and a stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.[52] A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the bean after processing.[53] Chaff is usually removed from the beans by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the beans.[50] Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking beans in hot water or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils.[17] Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.[17]
[edit] Storage Once roasted, coffee beans must be stored properly to preserve the fresh taste of the bean. Ideally, the container must be airtight and kept cool. In order of importance, air, moisture, heat, and light are the environmental factors[54] responsible for deteriorating flavor in coffee beans.
Folded-over bags, a common way consumers often purchase coffee, are generally not ideal for long-term storage because they allow air to enter. A better package contains a one-way valve, which prevents air from entering.[54]
[edit] Preparation Main article: Coffee preparation
Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown cremaCoffee beans must be ground and brewed in order to create a beverage. All methods of preparing coffee require the beans to be ground and mixed with hot water for long enough to extract the flavor, but without boiling for more than an instant; boiling develops an unpleasant "cooked" flavor. Finally the spent grounds are removed from the liquid, and the liquid is drunk. There are many variations in the fineness of grind, the ways in which the water extracts the flavor, additional flavorings (sugar, milk, spices), and the removal of the spent grounds.
The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy. Extracting as much flavor as possible from the beans (for economy) tends to impair flavor[citation needed].
The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee beans can be ground at home, and it is possible, though complex, to roast raw beans.
Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr mill uses revolving elements to shear the bean; an electric grinder smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed; and a mortar and pestle crushes the beans.
The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee-brewing machines.[55]
Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured.
Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method.[56] It is prepared by grinding or pounding the beans to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to the boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup.[56]
Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee by gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker hot water drips onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper, plastic, or perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent grounds are retained in the filter.[57] In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an internal timer[57], or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature. This thermostat also serves to keep the coffee warm (it turns on when the pot cools), but requires the removal of the basket holding the grounds after the initial brewing to avoid additional brewing as the pot reheats. Repeated boiling spoils the flavor of coffee.
Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière or coffee press). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage, making it stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.[58] The coffee is poured from the container; the filter retains the grounds at the bottom.
The espresso method forces hot (but not boiling) pressurized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the amount of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.[55] The drink "Americano" is popularly thought to have been named after American soldiers in WW II who found the European way of drinking espresso too strong; baristas would cut the espresso with hot water for them.
Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the fancy design layered into this latte.Coffee may also be brewed in cold water by steeping coarsely-ground beans in cold water for several hours, then filtering[citation needed].
[edit] Presentation
French petit noirOnce brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served with no additives or sugar (colloquially known as black) or with milk, cream, or both. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.
Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is served alone as a shot or in the more watered-down style café américano—a shot or two of espresso with hot water added[59] (reversing the process by adding espresso to hot water preserves the crema, and is known as a long black). Milk can be added in various forms to espresso: steamed milk makes a cafè latte,[60] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a cappuccino,[59] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.[61] The use of steamed milk to form patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte art.
A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.[62] Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan, and South Korea. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly sweetened and preblended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the United States.[63] Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.[64]
[edit] Types of popular coffee beverages Main article: List of coffee beverages
[edit] Social aspects Main article: Social aspects of coffee See also: Coffeehouse for a social history of coffee, and caffè for specifically Italian traditions.
A coffeehouse in Palestine (1900)Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,000 years ago, traders brought coffee across the Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muslim monks began cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was used during religious ceremonies.[citation needed]
Coffee became the substitute beverage in spiritual practices where wine was forbidden.[65] Coffee drinking was briefly prohibited by Muslims as haraam in the early years of the 16th century, but this was quickly overturned. Use in religious rites among the Sufi branch of Islam led to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretical substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was later prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad IV.[66] Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as late as 1889; it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early association in Europe with rebellious political activities led to its banning in England, among other places.[67]
A contemporary example of coffee prohibition can be found in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[68] The organization claims that it is both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee.[69] This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by Mormon founder Joseph Smith in a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by name, but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly," which has been interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.[69]
Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid caffeinated drinks. In its teachings, the Church requires members to avoid tea and coffee and other stimulants. Studies conducted on Adventists have shown a small but statistically significant association between coffee consumption and mortality from ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all cardiovascular diseases combined, and all causes of death.[70]
[edit] Health and pharmacology Main article: Coffee and health Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions. Findings are contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the negative effects of coffee consumption.[9]
Overview of the more common effects of caffeine,[71] a main active component of coffeeCoffee consumption has been shown to have minimal or no impact, positive or negative, on cancer development;[72] however, researchers involved in an ongoing 22-year study by the Harvard School of Public Health state that "the overall balance of risks and benefits [of coffee consumption] are on the side of benefits."[72] Various other studies have shown apparent reductions in the risks of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, heart disease, diabetes mellitus type 2, cirrhosis of the liver,[73] and gout. A longitudinal study in 2009 showed that moderate drinkers of coffee (3-5 cups per day) had lower chances of developing dementia, in addition to Alzheimer's disease [74]. It increases the risk of acid reflux and associated diseases.[75] Some health effects of coffee are due to its caffeine content, as the benefits are only observed in those who drink caffeinated coffee while others appear to be due to other components.[76] For example, the antioxidants in coffee prevent free radicals from causing cell damage.[77]
Caffeine is the major coffee constituent which the coffee tolerance or intolerance depends on. In a healthy liver, the majority of caffeine is degraded by the hepatic microsomal enzymatic system. Caffeine is mostly degraded to paraxanthine substances, partially to theobromine and theophylline, and a small amount of unchanged caffeine is excreted by urine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver. Elderly individuals with a depleted enzymatic system do not tolerate coffee with caffeine. They are recommended to take decaffeinated coffee, and this only if their stomach is healthy, because both decaffeinated coffee and coffee with caffeine cause heartburn. Moderate amounts of coffee (50-100 mg of caffeine or 5-10 g of coffee powder a day) are well tolerated by a majority of elderly people. Excessive amounts of coffee, however, can in many individuals cause very unpleasant, exceptionally even life-threatening side effects.[78]
Coffee consumption can lead to iron deficiency anemia in mothers and infants.[79] Coffee also interferes with the absorption of supplemental iron.[80]
American scientist Yaser Dorri has suggested that the smell of coffee can restore appetite and refresh olfactory receptors. He suggests that people can regain their appetite after cooking by smelling coffee beans, and that this method can also be used for research animals.[81] Many high end perfume shops now offer coffee beans to refresh the receptors between perfume tests.
Over 1,000 chemicals have been reported in roasted coffee; more than half of those tested (19/28) are rodent carcinogens.[82] Coffee's negative health effects are often blamed on its caffeine content. Research suggests that drinking caffeinated coffee can cause a temporary increase in the stiffening of arterial walls.[83] Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.[84] Some studies suggest that it may have a mixed effect on short-term memory, by improving it when the information to be recalled is related to the current train of thought but making it more difficult to recall unrelated information.[85] About 10% of people with a moderate daily intake (235 mg per day) reported increased depression and anxiety when caffeine was withdrawn,[86] and about 15% of the general population report having stopped caffeine use completely, citing concern about health and unpleasant side effects.[87]
[edit] Caffeine content
Caffeine moleculeDepending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving can vary greatly. On average, a single cup of coffee (about 200 milliliters) or a single shot of espresso (about 30 mL) can be expected to contain the following amounts of caffeine:[88][89][90][91]
[edit] See also Coffee substitute Chicory root, occasionally used as a natural coffee additive.
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Rice From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). It has been suggested that Oryza sativa be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
RiceRice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 370 kcal 1530 kJ Carbohydrates 79 g - Sugars 0.12 g - Dietary fiber 1.3 g Fat 0.66 g Protein 7.13 g Water 11.62 g Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.070 mg 5% Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.049 mg 3% Niacin (Vit. B3) 1.6 mg 11% Pantothenic acid (B5) 1.014 mg 20% Vitamin B6 0.164 mg 13% Folate (Vit. B9) 8 μg 2% Calcium 28 mg 3% Iron 0.80 mg 6% Magnesium 25 mg 7% Manganese 1.088 mg 54% Phosphorus 115 mg 16% Potassium 115 mg 2% Zinc 1.09 mg 11%
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database
Oryza sativa Rice stem cross section magnified 400 timesRice is the seed of the monocot plant Oryza sativa, of the grass family (Poaceae). As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in tropical Latin America, the West Indies, South Louisiana, East, South and Southeast Asia. It is the grain with the second highest worldwide production, after maize ("corn").[1]. Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is probably the most important grain with regards to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by the human species.[2] A traditional food plant in Africa, rice has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.[3] In early 2008, some governments and retailers began rationing supplies of the grain due to fears of a global rice shortage.[4][5]
The name wild rice is usually used for species of the grass genus Zizania, both wild and domesticated, although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza.
Rice is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop for up to 20 years.[6] The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. The grass has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick.
Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is very labor-intensive to cultivate and requires plenty of water for cultivation. Rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain. Although its parent species are native to South Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures worldwide.
The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound planning and servicing of the water damming and channeling, but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth state, and deters vermin. While with rice growing and cultivation the flooding is not mandatory, all other methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods and a different approach for fertilizing the soil.
Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 Preparation as food 3 Cooking 4 Rice growing ecology 5 History of domestication & cultivation 5.1 Asia 5.2 Africa 5.3 Middle East 5.4 Europe 5.5 Caribbean and Latin America 5.6 United States 5.7 Australia 6 World production and trade 6.1 Production and export 6.2 Price 6.3 Worldwide consumption 6.4 Environmental impacts 7 Pests and diseases 8 Cultivars 9 Biotechnology 9.1 High-yielding varieties 9.2 Potentials for the future 9.3 Golden rice 9.4 Expression of human proteins 10 Sayings 11 See also 12 References 12.1 General References 13 External links 13.1 General 13.2 Rice research & development 13.3 Rice in agriculture 13.4 Rice as food 13.5 Rice as fuel as in car fuel 13.6 Rice economics 13.7 Rice genome
[edit] Etymology According to the Microsoft Encarta Dictionary (2004) and the Chambers Dictionary of Etymology (1988), the word 'rice' has an Indo-Iranian origin. It came to English from Greek óryza, via Latin oriza, Italian riso and finally Old French ris (the same as present day French riz).
It has been speculated that the Indo-Iranian vrihi itself is borrowed from a Dravidian vari (Vari, వరి in telugu *warinci)[7] or the Tamil arisi (அரிசி), from which the Arabic ar-ruzz, from which the Portuguese and Spanish word arroz originated.
On the origin of the terms and the introduction of rice cultivation see Michael Witzel, "Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages", Mother Tongue, Oct. 1999.
The planting of rice is often a labor-intensive process. Japanese short-grain rice plants Japanese short-grain rice ear Short-grain rice grains, natural state
[edit] Preparation as food
Broker of rice in the 1820s Japan. "36 Views of Mount Fuji" Hokusai Old fashioned way of rice polishing in Japan."36 Views of Mount Fuji" HokusaiThe seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a rice huller to remove the chaff (the outer husks of the grain). At this point in the process, the product is called brown rice. The milling may be continued, removing the 'bran', i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating white rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks some important nutrients; in a limited diet which does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent the disease beriberi.
White rice may be also buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called polished rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in general), parboiled, or processed into flour. White rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water insoluble substance which is resistant to washing.
Terraced rice paddy on a hill slope in Indonesia.Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer),[8] talc-coated rice remains the norm in some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some, and is no longer widely used in others (such as the United States). Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains.
Rice bran, called nukkah in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce an oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and Takuan.
Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and sake. Rice flour does not contain gluten and is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw wild or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually 1 week to 30 days); see also Gaba rice below.
Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating. Cooked rice may be further fried in oil or butter, or beaten in a tub to make mochi.
Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health, and should be combined with other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish, or meat.[9]
Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' water content and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing pre-puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gas law means that either lowering the local pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation, resulting in a puffy texture. Bulk raw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm³. It decreases to less than one-tenth that when puffed.
[edit] Cooking Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Cookbook:Rice Recipes There are many varieties of rice such as laweed; for many purposes the main distinction is between long- and medium-grain rice. The grains of long-grain rice (high amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (high amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, and for rissotti in Italy and many arrossos -as arròs negre, etc.- in Spain.
Uncooked, polished, white long-grain rice grains Chinese rice dish utilising Basmati riceRice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. It can be cooked in just as much water as it absorbs (the absorption method), or in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving (the rapid-boil method).[10] Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice is often heated in oil before boiling, or oil is added to the water; this is thought to make the cooked rice less sticky.
In Arab cuisine rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is also used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves. When combined with milk, sugar and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Islamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant.[11]
Rice may also be made into rice porridge (also called congee or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water to the point that it becomes very soft, expanded, and fluffy. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is also a traditional food for the sick.
Rice may be soaked prior to cooking, which saves fuel, decreases cooking time, minimizes exposure to high temperature and thus decreases the stickiness of the rice. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains.
In some countries parboiled rice is popular. Parboiled rice is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice. This causes nutrients from the outer husk to move into the grain itself. The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking, as happens when cooking regular white rice.
Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is milled, fully cooked and then dried.
A nutritionally superior method of preparing brown rice known as GABA Rice or GBR (Germinated Brown Rice)[12] may be used. This involves soaking washed brown rice for 20 hours in warm water (38°C or 100°F) prior to cooking it. This process stimulates germination, which activates various enzymes in the rice. By this method, a result of research carried out for the United Nations Year of Rice, it is possible to obtain a more complete amino acid profile, including GABA.
Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4°C–60°C [12]. When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production.
Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.
[edit] Rice growing ecology Rice can be grown in different ecologies, depending upon water availability.[13]
Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and flood prone Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season and the dry season Deep water or floating rice Coastal Wetland Upland rice, Upland rice is also known as 'Ghaiya rice', well known for its drought tolerance[14]
[edit] History of domestication & cultivation
[edit] Asia
The average asian rice farmer owns a few hectare : Banaue Rice Terraces, N. Luzon, PhilippinesRice has been cultivated in Asia likely over 10,000 years.
Genetics shows that rice was first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze river valley.[15]
Main article: Oryza sativa#History of domestication and cultivation
[edit] Africa African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1700 and 800 BC, O. glaberrima propagated from its original centre, the Niger River delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the Asian species, possibly brought to the African continent by Arabs coming from the east coast between the 7th and 11th centuries CE.
Rice crop in MadagascarIn parts of Africa under Islam, rice was chiefly grown in southern Morocco. During the tenth century rice was also brought to east Africa by Arab traders. Although, the diffusion of rice in much sub-Saharan Africa remains uncertain, Arabs brought it to the region stretching from Lake Chad to the White Nile.[16]
[edit] Middle East According to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was introduced to the Middle East in Hellenistic times, and was familiar to both Greek and Roman writers. They report that a large sample of rice grains was recovered from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the first century AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same time rice was grown in the Po valley in Italy.
In Iraq rice was grown in some areas of southern Iraq. With the rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin, the southern shores of the Caspian Sea and then beyond the Muslim world into the valley of Volga. In Palestine, rice came to be grown in the Jordan valley. Rice is also grown in Yemen.[16]
[edit] Europe The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the tenth century. Records indicate it was grown in Valencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest, although historians are not certain.[16]
Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an important crop.[16]
After the middle of the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the age of European exploration.
[edit] Caribbean and Latin America
Latin american producers often farm several hundred hectare : Rice paddy in Paraguay.Rice is not native to the Americas but was introduced to the Caribbean and South America by European colonizers at an early date with Spanish colonizers introducing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz and the Portuguese and their African slaves introducing it at about the same time to Colonial Brazil.[17] Recent scholarship suggests that African slaves played an active role in the establishment of rice in the New World and that African rice was an important crop from an early period.[18] In either case, varieties of rice and bean dishes were a staple dish along the peoples of West Africa and they remained a staple among their descendants subjected to slavery in the Spanish New World colonies and elsewhere in the Americas.[19]
[edit] United States
South Carolina rice plantation (Mansfield Plantation, Georgetown.)In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar.[20]
In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgia grew and amassed great wealth from the slave labor obtained from the Senegambia area of West Africa and from coastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston, through which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves from this region of Africa brought the highest prices, in recognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to use on the many rice plantations around Georgetown, Charleston, and Savannah. From the slaves, plantation owners learned how to **** the marshes and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was milled by hand with wooden paddles, then winnowed in sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was another skill brought by the slaves). The invention of the rice mill increased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright Jonathan Lucas was another step forward. Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less profitable with the loss of slave labor after the American Civil War, and it finally died out just after the turn of the 20th century. Today, people can visit the only remaining rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the original winnowing barn and rice mill from the mid-1800s at the historic Mansfield Plantation in Georgetown, SC. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as "Carolina Gold." The cultivar has been preserved and there are current attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.[21]
American long-grain rice plantsIn the southern United States, rice has been grown in southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since the mid 1800s. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wet marshes and low lying prairies where they could also farm crayfish when the fields were flooded[22]. In recent years rice production has risen in North America, especially in the Mississippi River Delta areas in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi.
Rice cultivation began in California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese laborers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of the grain for their own consumption. However, commercial production began only in 1912 in the town of Richvale in Butte County.[23] By 2006, California produced the second largest rice crop in the United States,[24] after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six counties north of Sacramento.[25] Unlike the Mississippi Delta region, California's production is dominated by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such as Calrose, which makes up as much as eighty five percent of the state's crop.[26]
References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated Zizania palustris
More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially produced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S.[27] According to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice production in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximately half of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. provides about 12% of world rice trade.[27] The majority of domestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%), while 16 percent is used in processed foods and beer respectively. The remaining 10 percent is found in pet food.[27]
[edit] Australia Although attempts to grow rice in the well-watered north of Australia have been made for many years, they have consistently failed because of inherent iron and manganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.
In the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on soils within the Murray-Darling Basin that were too heavy for the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat.[28]
Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia, was (and remains) very cheap, the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups over the following decades. Californian varieties of rice were found suitable for the climate in the Riverina, and the first mill opened at Leeton in 1951.
Even before this Australia's rice production greatly exceeded local needs,[28] and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[29] encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its prodigious water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. These became severely concerned with declining flow in the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.
Although rice growing in Australia is exceedingly efficient and highly profitable due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of severe drought have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosystems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat opportunistic, with the area planted varying significantly from season to season depending on water allocations in the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.
[edit] World production and trade
[edit] Production and export
Paddy rice output in 2005.World production of rice[30] has risen steadily from about 200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to 600 million tonnes in 2004. Milled rice is about 68% of paddy rice by weight. In the year 2004, the top four producers were China (26% of world production), India (20%), Indonesia (9%) and Bangladesh.
World trade figures are very different, as only about 5–6% of rice produced is traded internationally. The largest three exporting countries are Thailand (26% of world exports), Vietnam (15%), and the United States (11%), while the largest three importers are Indonesia (14%), Bangladesh (4%), and Brazil (3%). Although China and India are the top two largest producers of rice in the world, both countries consume the majority of the rice produced domestically leaving little to be traded internationally.
[edit] Price In March to May 2008, the price of rice rose greatly due to a rice shortage. In late April 2008, rice prices hit 24 cents a pound, twice the price that it was seven months earlier.[31]
On the 30th of April, 2008, Thailand announced the project of the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries (OREC) with the potential to develop into a price-fixing cartel for rice.[32][33]
[edit] Worldwide consumption Consumption of rice by country—2003/2004 (million metric ton)[34] China 135 India 125 Egypt 3.9 Indonesia 37 Bangladesh 26 Brazil 24 Vietnam 18 Thailand 10 Myanmar 10 Philippines 9.7 Japan 8.7 Mexico 7.3 South Korea 5.0 United States 3.9 Malaysia 2.7 Source: United States Department of Agriculture Between 1961 and 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40%.
Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for rice production. See The Burning of the Rice by Don Puckridge for the story of rice production in Cambodia [13].
U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25 years, fueled in part by commercial applications such as beer production.[35] Almost one in five adult Americans now report eating at least half a serving of white or brown rice per day.[36]
[edit] Environmental impacts In many countries where rice is the main cereal crop, rice cultivation is responsible for most of the methane emissions.[37] Rice requires much more water to produce than other grains.[38]
As sea levels rise, rice will become more inclined to remain flooded for longer periods of time. Longer stays in water cuts the soil off from atmospheric oxygen and causes fermentation of organic matter in the soil. During the wet season, rice cannot hold the carbon in anaerobic conditions. The microbes in the soil convert the carbon into methane which is then released through the respiration of the rice plant or through diffusion of water. Current contributions of methane from agriculture is ~15% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, as estimated by the IPCC. Further rise in sea level of 10-85 centimeters would then stimulate the release of more methane into the air by rice plants. Methane is twenty times more effective as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.[39]
[edit] Pests and diseases Main article: List of rice diseases
Pest on a rice plant in Assam, IndiaRice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds).[40] (Jahn et al. 2007) Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including the overuse of pesticides and high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application.[41] Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while thrip outbreaks are associated with drought.[42].
One of the challenges crop protection specialists are trying to help address is the development of rice pest management techniques which are sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened.([43] At present, rice pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which include insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary.[44][45][46][47][48] By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests,[49] misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks (Cohen et al. 1994). Botanicals, so-called “natural pesticides”, are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests, but in general the practice is not common. Upland rice is grown without standing water in the field. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena odorata) over the surface of fields after planting. This practice probably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations.[50]
Among rice cultivars there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage.[51] Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance.[52] Three main types of plant resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, antibiosis, and tolerance.[53] Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation.[54] Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have broken down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many years in the presence of pests, and retain their ability to withstand the pests are said to have durable resistance. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable resistance.[55]
Major rice pests include the brown [56][57] the rice gall midge,[58] the rice bug[59] hispa, the rice leaffolder,[60] stemborer[61] rats[62], and the weed Echinochloa crusgali[63] Rice weevils[64] are also known to be a threat to rice crops in the United States, Peoples Republic of China and Taiwan.
Major rice diseases include Rice Ragged Stunt,[65] Sheath Blight[66] and tungro.[67] Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation.
[edit] Cultivars Main article: List of rice varieties While most breeding of rice is carried out for crop quality and productivity, there are varieties selected for other reasons such as texture, smell and squishiness. Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these are generally called 'floating rice' [14].
The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), with over 100,000 rice accessions [15] held in the International Rice Genebank [16]. Rice cultivars are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky, as long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants usually serve long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of rice; does not refer to "gluten") to make zongzi. The Japanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind as well.
Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati (grown in the North), long and medium-grained Patna rice and short-grained Sona Masoori (also spelled Sona Masuri). In the state of Tamil Nadu, the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown in the delta regions of Kaveri River. Kaveri is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. In the Western Indian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety called Ambemohar is very popular. this rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom.
Unpolished long-grain rice grains with bran Polished Indian sona masuri rice grainsAromatic rices have definite aromas and flavours; the most noted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna rice, and a hybrid cultivar from America sold under the trade name, Texmati. Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma and flavour. In Indonesia there are also red and black cultivars.
High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa and other dry ecosystems called the new rice for Africa (NERICA) cultivars have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve food security in West Africa.
Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars, indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Rice was chosen as a model organism for the biology of grasses because of its relatively small genome (~430 megabase pairs). Rice was the first crop with a complete genome sequence.[68]
On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.
[edit] Biotechnology
[edit] High-yielding varieties Main article: High-yielding variety The High Yielding Varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase global food production. Rice, like corn and wheat, was genetically manipulated to increase its yield. This project enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The first "modern rice", IR8 was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philippines' Los Banos site. IR8 was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen."[69]
With advances in molecular genetics, the mutant genes responsible for reduced height(rht), gibberellin insensitive (gai1) and slender rice (slr1) in Arabidopsis and rice were identified as cellular signaling components of gibberellic acid (a phytohormone involved in regulating stem growth via its effect on cell division) and subsequently cloned. Stem growth in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, these varieties increase their yield two to three times.
[edit] Potentials for the future As the UN Millennium Development project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa, the "Green Revolution" is cited as the model for economic development. With the intent of replicating the successful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups like the Earth Institute are doing research on African agricultural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An important way this can happen is the production of "New Rices for Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to tolerate the low input and harsh growing conditions of African agriculture are produced by the African Rice Center, and billed as technology from Africa, for Africa. The NERICA have appeared in The New York Times (October 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (October 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence.
[edit] Golden rice Main article: Golden rice German and Swiss researchers have engineered rice to produce Beta-carotene, with the intent that it might someday be used to treat vitamin A deficiency. Additional efforts are being made to improve the quantity and quality of other nutrients in golden rice.[70] The addition of the carotene turns the rice gold.
[edit] Expression of human proteins Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin, lysozyme, and human serum al***in which are proteins usually found in breast milk. These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects.[71]
Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in **** rehydration solutions which are used to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also help reverse anemia.[72]
[edit] Sayings A proverbial saying in Japan states: "The farmer spends eighty-eight efforts on rice from planting to crop." This teaches the sense of mottainai and gratitude for the farmer and for rice itself.[73] There is a Sri Lankan saying, 'deyyange haal kawila', meaning 'having eaten God’s rice'. This is used to explain a crazy person or his actions in general with humour. The reasoning behind this is that when the rice harvest is collected, a small fraction of the best part is dedicated to the gods and that is sacred - if a person eats that, they will be afflicted with curses and lose mental stability/act crazy.
[edit] See also Basmati rice Beaten rice Bhutanese red rice Black rice Brown rice syrup Fengyuan City Forbidden rice Inari Indonesian rice table Jasmine rice List of rice dishes List of rice varieties New Rice for Africa Nutritious Rice for the World Protein per unit area Puffed rice Rice Belt Rice bran oil Rice ethanol Rice wine Risotto Straw System of Rice Intensification Weedy rice White rice Wild rice Rice shortage
[edit] References ^ "ProdSTAT". FAOSTAT. http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx. Retrieved on 2006-12-26. ^ Smith, Bruce D. The Emergence of Agriculture. Scientific American Library, A Division of HPHLP, New York, 1998. ^ National Research Council (1996-02-14). "African Rice". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Lost Crops of Africa. 1. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-04990-0. http://books.nap.edu/openbook....cord_id=2305&page=17. Retrieved on 2008-07-18. ^ Global rice shortage sparks panic - SBS World News Australia ^ BBC World Service - News - Global rice shortage ^ International Rice Research Institute The Rice Plant and How it Grows Retrieved January 29, 2008 ^ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0 at p. 5. ^ Risks of Talcum Powder ^ Jianguo G. Wu; Chunhai Shia and Xiaoming Zhanga (2003). "Estimating the amino acid composition in milled rice by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy". Field Crops Research. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s...7a73ee21f915f0e#sec7. Retrieved on 2008-01-08. ^ The latter method of using excess water is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are flushed away when the water is discarded. ^ Watson, p. 15 ^ Shoichi Ito and Yukihiro Ishikawa Tottori University, Japan. "(Marketing of Value-Added Rice Products in Japan: Germinated Grown Rice and Rice Bread.)". http://www.hatsuga.com/DOMER/english/en/GBRRB.html. Retrieved on February 12 2004. ^ IRRI rice knowledge bank ^ drought tolerance in upland rice ^ Vaughan et al (2008). "The evolving story of rice evolution". Plant Science 174 (4): 394–408. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016. ^ a b c d Watson, p. 17-18 ^ Slavery in America: Rice and Slavery ^ Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas by Judith A. Carney ^ National Research Council (1996-02-14). "African Rice". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Lost Crops of Africa. 1. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-04990-0. http://books.nap.edu/openbook....cord_id=2305&page=17. Retrieved on 2008-07-18. ^ Slavery in America: Rice and Slavery ^ http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/ Carolina Gold Rice Foundation ^ Farm Raised Crawfish ^ Ching Lee (2005). "Historic Richvale — the birthplace of California rice". California Farm Bureau Federation. http://www.cfbf.com/magazine/M...86079795C442636B55FB. Retrieved on 2007-08-10. ^ "California's Rice Growing Region". California Rice Commission. http://www.calrice.org/e7b_cas...e_growing_region.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-10. ^ Daniel A. Sumner; Henrich Brunke (2003). "The economic contributions of the California rice industry"". California Rice Commission. http://www.calrice.org/c3a_economic_impact.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-10. ^ "Medium Grain Varieties". California Rice Commission. http://www.calrice.org/b6a_medium.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-10. ^ a b c States Department of Agriculture August 2006, Release No. 0306.06, U.S. RICE STATISTICS ^ a b Wadham, Sir Samuel; Wilson, R. Kent and Wood, Joyce; Land Utilization in Australia, 3rd ed. Published 1957 by Melbourne University Press; p. 246 ^ Australian Bureau of Meteorology; Climatic Atlas of Australia: Rainfall; published 2000 by Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Victoria ^ all figures from UNCTAD 1998–2002 and the International Rice Research Institute statistics (accessed September 2005) ^ "Cyclone fuels rice price increase", BBC News, 7 May 2008 ^ "Mekong nations to form rice price-fixing cartel", Radio Australia, April 30, 2008. ^ "PM floats idea of five-nation rice cartel", Bangkok Post, May 1, 2008. ^ Nationmaster.com, Agriculture Statistics > Grains > Rice consumption (most recent) by country, http://www.nationmaster.com/gr...ns-rice-consumption, retrieved on 2008-04-24 ^ United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Economic Research Service, Briefing Rooms: Rice, http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Rice/, retrieved on 2008-04-24 ^ Iowa State University (July 2005). Rice Consumption in the United States: New Evidence from Food Consumption Surveys. http://publications.iowa.gov/2781/. ^ Methane Emission from Rice Fields - Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming by Heinz-Ulrich Neue. ^ report12.pdf ^ IPCC. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. United Nations Environment Programme, 2007:Ch5, 8, and 10.[1] ^ Jahn et al. 2000 ^ e.g. Jahn et al. 2005 [2] ^ Douangboupha et al. 2006 ^ Jahn et al. 2001) ^ Jahn et al. 1996 ^ 2004a,b) ^ [3] ^ [4] ^ [5] ^ (Jahn 1992) ^ (Jahn et al. 1999) ^ (Jahn et al. 2004c, Khiev et al. 2000) ^ [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/glossary/default.htm#Glossary/D.htm Definition of resistance ^ Painter 1951, Smith 2005) ^ Kogan and Ortman, 1978 ^ (e.g. Liu et al. 2005, Sangha et al. 2008) ^ planthopper ^ [6] (Preap et al. 2006), armyworms[7], the green leafhopper, ^ (Jahn and Khiev 2004) ^ rice bug (Jahn et al. 2004c) ^ (Murphy et al. 2006), [8] ^ [9] ^ (Leung et al. 2002) ^ (Pheng et al. 2001) ^ Rice weevils ^ Rice Ragged Stunt ^ Sheath Blight ^ Tungro ^ Gillis, Justing (August 11, 2005). "Rice Genome Fully Mapped". washingtonpost.com. http://www.washingtonpost.com/....html?referrer=email. ^ Rice Varieties: IRRI Knowledge Bank. Accessed August 2006. [10] ^ Grand Challenges in Global Health, Press release, June 27, 2005 ^ Nature's story ^ Bethell D. R., Huang J., et al. BioMetals, 17. 337 - 342 (2004).[11] ^ proverbial saying, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan), (Japanese)
[edit] General References Cohen, J. E., K. Schoenly, K. L. Heong, H. Justo, G. Arida, A. T. Barrion, J. A. Litsinger. 1994. A Food Web Approach to Evaluating the Effect of Insecticide Spraying on Insect Pest Population Dynamics in a Philippine Irrigated Rice Ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 747–763. doi:10.2307/2404165 Crawford, G.W. and C. Shen. 1998. The Origins of Rice Agriculture: Recent Progress in East Asia. Antiquity 72:858–866. Crawford, G.W. and G.-A. Lee. 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87–95. Douangboupha, B., K. Khamphoukeo, S. Inthavong, J. Schiller, and G. Jahn. 2006. Pests and diseases of the rice production systems of Laos. Pp. 265–281. In J.M. Schiller, M.B. Chanphengxay, B. Linquist, and S. Appa Rao, editors. Rice in Laos. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 457 p. ISBN 978-971-22-0211-7. Heong, KL, YH Chen, DE Johnson, GC Jahn, M Hossain, RS Hamilton. 2005. Debate Over a GM Rice Trial in China. Letters. Science, Vol 310, Issue 5746, 231–233 , 14 October 2005. Huang, J., Ruifa Hu, Scott Rozelle, Carl Pray. 2005. Insect-Resistant GM Rice in Farmers' Fields: Assessing Productivity and Health Effects in China. Science (29 April 2005) Vol. 308. no. 5722, pp. 688–690. DOI: 10.1126/science.1108972 Jahn, G. C. 1992. Rice pest control and effects on predators in Thailand. Insecticide & Acaricide Tests 17:252–253. Jahn, GC and B. Khiev. 2004. Gall midge in Cambodian lowland rice. pp. 71–76. In J. Benett, JS Bentur, IC Pasula, K. Krishnaiah, [eds]. New approaches to gall midge resistance in rice. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 195 p. Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev, and C. Pol. 1996. Farmers’ pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian lowland rice. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP), Baseline Survey Report No. 6. CIAP Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 28 pages. [17] Jahn, G. C., B. Khiev, S. Pheng, and C. Pol. 1997. Pest management in rice. In H. J. Nesbitt [ed.] "Rice Production in Cambodia." Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 83–91. Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev, and C. Pol. 1997. Pest management practices of lowland rice farmers in Cambodia. In K. L. Heong and M. M. Escalada [editors] "Pest Management Practices of Rice Farmers in Asia." Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 35–52. ISBN 971-22-0102-3 Jahn, G. C., C. Pol, B. Khiev, S. Pheng, and N. Chhorn. 1999. Farmer’s pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian upland and deepwater rice. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project, Baseline Survey Report No. 7.[18] Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev and C. Pol 2000. Ecological characterization of biotic constraints to rice in Cambodia. International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) 25 (3): 23–24. Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, C. Pol, B. Khiev 2000. Characterizing biotic constraints to production of Cambodian rainfed lowland rice: limitations to statistical techniques. pp. 247–268 In T. P. Tuong, S. P. Kam, L. Wade, S. Pandey, B. A. M. Bouman, B. Hardy [eds.] “Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments.” Proceedings of the International Workshop on Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments, 5–9 December 1999, Bali, Indonesia. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). 488 p. Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C. Pol, N. Chhorn, S. Pheng, and V. Preap. 2001. Developing sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. pp. 243–258, In S. Suthipradit, C. Kuntha, S. Lorlowhakarn, and J. Rakngan [eds.] “Sustainable Agriculture: Possibility and Direction” Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on Sustainable Agriculture 18–20 October 1999, Phitsanulok, Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand): National Science and Technology Development Agency. 386 p. Jahn, GC, NQ Kamal, S Rokeya, AK Azad, NI Dulu, JB Orsini, A Barrion, and L Almazan. 2004a. Completion Report on Livelihood Improvement Through Ecology (LITE), PETRRA IPM Subproject SP 27 02. Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistance (PETRRA), IRRI, Dhaka. 20 pages text plus 20 pages appendices. [19] Jahn, GC, NQ Kamal, S Rokeya, AK Azad, NI Dulu, JB Orsini, M Morshed, NMS Dhar, NA Kohinur 2004b. Evaluation Report on Livelihood Improvement Through Ecology (LITE), PETRRA IPM Subproject SP 27 02. Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistance (PETRRA), IRRI, Dhaka. 42 pages plus 40 pages of annexes.[20] Jahn, GC, I. Domingo, L. P. Almazan and J. Pacia. 2004c. Effect of rice bugs (Alydidae: Leptocorisa oratorius (Fabricius)) on rice yield, grain quality, and seed viability. Journal of Economic Entomology 97(6): 1923–1927.[21] Jahn, GC, LP Almazan, and J Pacia. 2005. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (Oryza sativa L.). Environmental Entomology 34 (4): 938–943.[22] Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice: Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. Cuperus). CAB International Pp. 315–366. Khiev, B., G. C. Jahn, C. Pol, and N. Chhorn 2000. Effects of simulated pest damage on rice yields. IRRN 25 (3): 27–28. Kogan, M., and E. F. Ortman. 1978. Antixenosis a new term proposed to defined to describe Painter’s “non-preference” modality of resistance. Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 24: 175-176. Leung LKP, Peter G. Cox, Gary C. Jahn and Robert Nugent. 2002. Evaluating rodent management with Cambodian rice farmers. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture Vol. 5, pp. 21–26. Liu, L., Z. Van, Q. Y. Shu, and M. Maluszynski. 2004. Officially released mutant varieties in China. Mutat. Breed. Rev 14: 1:64. Ma, Jian Feng; Kazunori Tamai, Naoki Yamaji, Namiki Mitani, Saeko Konishi, Maki Katsuhara, Masaji Ishiguro, Yoshiko Murata, Masahiro Yano (2006). "A silicon transporter in rice". Nature 440 (7084): 688–691. doi:10.1038/nature04590. Mitani, Namiki; Jian Feng Ma, Takashi Iwa****a (2005). "Identification of the silicon form in xylem sap of rice (Oryza sativa L.)". Plant Cell Physiol. 46 (2): 279–283. doi:10.1093/pcp/pci018. PMID 15695469.
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Sugar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Sugar (disambiguation). For the common table sugar, see sucrose.
Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure.Sugar, granulated Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 390 kcal 1620 kJ Carbohydrates 99.98 g - Sugars 99.91 g - Dietary fiber 0 g Fat 0 g Protein 0 g Water 0.03 g Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.019 mg 1% Calcium 1 mg 0% Iron 0.01 mg 0% Potassium 2 mg 0%
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database Sugars, brown Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 380 kcal 1580 kJ Carbohydrates 97.33 g - Sugars 96.21 g - Dietary fiber 0 g Fat 0 g Protein 0 g Water 1.77 g Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.008 mg 1% Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.007 mg 0% Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.082 mg 1% Vitamin B6 0.026 mg 2% Folate (Vit. B9) 1 μg 0% Calcium 85 mg 9% Iron 1.91 mg 15% Magnesium 29 mg 8% Phosphorus 22 mg 3% Potassium 346 mg 7% Sodium 39 mg 2% Zinc 0.18 mg 2%
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database
Magnified crystals of refined sugar.Sugar (see below for etymology) is a class of edible crystalline substances, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose. Human taste buds interpret its flavor as sweet. Sugar as a basic food carbohydrate primarily comes from sugar cane and from sugar beet, but also appears in fruit, honey, sorghum, sugar maple (in maple syrup), and in many other sources. It forms the main ingredient in candy. Excessive consumption of sugar has been associated with increased incidences of type 2 diabetes, obesity and tooth decay.[1]
Contents [hide] 1 Terminology 1.1 Popular 1.2 Scientific 1.3 Culinary/nutritional 2 History 3 Etymology 4 As a food 5 Human health 5.1 Tooth decay 5.2 Diabetes 5.3 Obesity 5.4 Gout 5.5 Cancer 5.6 United Nations nutritional advice 5.7 Debate on extrinsic sugar 5.8 Concerns of vegetarians and vegans 6 Other concerns 6.1 Animal welfare issues 7 Production 7.1 Cane 7.2 Beet 7.3 Cane versus beet 7.4 Culinary sugars 8 Chemistry 9 Measuring sugar 9.1 Dissolved sugar content 9.2 Purity 9.3 Baking weight/mass volume relationship 10 Trade and economics 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links
Terminology
Popular In non-scientific use, the term sugar refers to sucrose (also called "table sugar" or "saccharose") — a white crystalline solid disaccharide. In this informal sense, the word "sugar" principally refers to crystalline sugars.
Humans most commonly use sucrose as their sugar of choice for altering the flavor and properties (such as mouthfeel, preservation, and texture) of beverages and food. Commercially produced table sugar comes either from sugar cane or from sugar beet. Manufacturing and preparing food may involve other sugars, including palm sugar and fructose, generally obtained from corn (maize) or from fruit.
Sugar may dissolve in water to form a syrup. A great many foods exist which principally contain dissolved sugar. Generically known as "syrups", they may also have other more specific names such as "honey", molasses or treacle.
Scientific Scientifically, sugar refers to any monosaccharide or disaccharide. Monosaccharides (also called "simple sugars"), such as glucose, store chemical energy which biological cells convert to other types of energy.
In a list of ingredients, any word that ends with "-ose" (such as "glucose", "dextrose", "fructose", etc.) will likely denote a sugar. Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water.
Glucose (a type of sugar found in human blood plasma) has the molecular formula C6 H12 O6.
Culinary/nutritional In culinary terms, the foodstuff known as sugar delivers a primary taste sensation of sweetness. Apart from the many forms of sugar and of sugar-containing foodstuffs, alternative non-sugar-based sweeteners exist, and these particularly attract interest from people who have problems with their blood sugar level (such as diabetics) and people who wish to limit their calorie-intake while still enjoying sweet foods. Both natural and synthetic substitutes exist with no significant carbohydrate (and thus low-calorie) content: for instance stevia (a herb), and saccharin (produced from naturally occurring but not necessarily naturally edible substances by inducing appropriate chemical reactions).
History
A sugarloaf was a traditional form for sugar in the 17th to 19th centuries, which required a sugar nip to break off pieces.Main article: History of sugar Originally, people chewed the cane raw to extract its sweetness. Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the Gupta dynasty, around AD 350.[2]
Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[3]
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Arab entrepreneurs adopted the techniques of sugar production from India and then refined and transformed them into a large-scale industry. Arabs set up the first large scale sugar mills, refineries, factories and plantations.
The 1390s saw the development of a better press, which doubled the juice obtained from the cane. This permitted economic expansion of sugar plantations to Andalucia and to the Algarve. The 1420s saw sugar production extended to the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores.
The Portuguese took sugar to Brazil. Hans Staden, published in 1555, writes that by 1540 Santa Catarina Island had 800 sugar mills and that the north coast of Brazil, Demarara and Suriname had another 2,000. Approximately 3,000 small mills built before 1550 in the New World created an unprecedented demand for cast iron gears, levers, axles and other implements. Specialist trades in mold-making and iron-casting developed in Europe due to the expansion of sugar production. Sugar mill construction developed technological skills needed for a nascent industrial revolution in the early 17th century.[citation needed]
After 1625 the Dutch carried sugarcane from South America to the Caribbean islands — where it became grown from Barbados to the Virgin Islands. The years 1625 to 1750 saw sugar become worth its weight in gold.[citation needed] With the European colonization of the Americas, the Caribbean became the world's largest source of sugar. These islands could supply sugarcane using slave labor and produce sugar at prices vastly lower than those of cane sugar imported from the East.
During the eighteenth century, sugar became enormously popular and the sugar market went through a series of booms. As Europeans established sugar plantations on the larger Caribbean islands, prices fell, especially in Britain. By the eighteenth century all levels of society had become common consumers of the former luxury product. At first most sugar in Britain went into tea, but later confectionery and chocolates became extremely popular. Suppliers commonly sold sugar in solid cones and consumers required a sugar nip, a pliers-like tool, to break off pieces.
Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica in 1768, and soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. Andreas Marggraf identified sucrose in beet root and his student Franz Achard built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia. However the beet-sugar industry really took off during the Napoleonic Wars, when France and the continent were cut off from caribbean sugar. Today 30% of the world's sugar is produced from beets.
Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.
Etymology In the case of sugar, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word "sugar" originates from the Arabic and Persian word shakar,[4] itself derived from Sanskrit Sharkara.[5] It came to English by way of French, Spanish and/or Italian, which derived their word for sugar from the Arabic and Persian shakar (whence the Portuguese word açúcar, the Spanish word azúcar, the Italian word zucchero, the Old French word zuchre and the contemporary French word sucre). (Compare the OED.) The Greek word for "sugar", zahari, means "pebble". Note that the English word jaggery (meaning "coarse brown Indian sugar") has similar ultimate etymological origins (presumably in Sanskrit).
As a food Main article: History of sugar Refined sugar was originally a luxury, but sugar eventually became sufficiently cheap and common to influence standard cuisine. Britain and the Caribbean islands have cuisines where the use of sugar became particularly prominent.
Sugar forms a major element in confectionery and in desserts. Cooks use it as a food preservative as well as for sweetening.
Human health This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject Health or the Health Portal may be able to help recruit one. (April 2008)
Human beings have long sought sugars, but aside from wild honey, have not had access to the large quantities that characterize the modern diet. Studies have indicated potential links between processed sugar consumption and health hazards, including obesity and tooth decay. John Yudkin showed that the consumption of sugar and refined sweeteners is closely associated with coronary heart disease. It is also considered as a source of endogenous glycation processes.
Tooth decay Tooth decay has arguably become the most prominent health hazard associated with the consumption of sugar. **** bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans live in dental plaque and metabolize sugars into lactic acid. High concentrations of acid may result on the surface of a tooth, leading to tooth demineralization.[6][7]
Diabetes Diabetes, a disease that causes the body to metabolize sugar poorly, occurs when either:
the body attacks the cells producing insulin, the chemical that allows the metabolizing of sugar in the body's cells (Type 1 diabetes) the body's cells ignore insulin (Type 2 diabetes) When glucose builds up in the bloodstream, it can cause two problems:
in the short term, cells become starved for energy because they do not have access to the glucose in the long term, frequent glucose build-up increases the acidity of the blood, damaging many of the body's organs, including the eyes, kidneys, nerves and/or heart Authorities advise diabetics to avoid sugar-rich foods to prevent adverse reactions.[8]
Obesity In the United States of America, a scientific/health debate has started[citation needed] over the causes of a steep rise in obesity in the general population — and one view posits increased consumption of carbohydrates in recent[update] decades as a major factor.[9]
Obesity can result from a number of factors including:
an increased intake of energy-dense foods — high in fat and sugars but low in vitamins, minerals and other micronutrients (see United Nations advice below); and decreased physical activity.[10] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I and Continuous indicates that the population in the United States has increased its proportion of energy consumption from carbohydrates and decreased its proportion from total fat while obesity has increased. This implies, along with the United Nations report cited below, that obesity may correlate better with sugar consumption than with fat consumption, and that reducing fat consumption while increasing sugar consumption actually increases the level of obesity. The following table summarizes this study (based on the proportion of energy intake from different food sources for US Adults 20-74 years old, as carried out by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD[11]):
Year *** Carbohydrate Fat Protein Obesity 1971 Male 42.4% 36.9% 16.5% 12.1% 1971 Female 45.4% 36.1% 16.9% 16.6% 2000 Male 49.0% 32.8% 15.5% 27.7% 2000 Female 51.6% 32.8% 15.1% 34.0%
Another study [2] published in 2002 and conducted by the National Academy of Sciences over a 3-year period concluded: “There is no clear and consistent association between increased intakes of added sugars and BMI.” (BMI or "Body mass index" measures body-weight and height.)
Gout Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of the painful joint disease gout.[12]
Cancer A link between sugar and cancer has been conjectured for some time but this remains a controversial topic. Some recent studies lend support to this theory.[13] However no major medical or nutritional organization currently recommends reducing sugar consumption to prevent cancer.
United Nations nutritional advice In 2003, four United Nations agencies (including the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization) commissioned a report compiled by a panel of 30 international experts. The panel stated that the total of free sugars (all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by manufacturers, cooks or consumers, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices) should not account for more than 10% of the energy intake of a healthy diet, while carbohydrates in total should represent between 55% and 75% of the energy intake.[14]
Debate on extrinsic sugar Argument continues as to the value of extrinsic sugar (sugar added to food) compared to that of intrinsic sugar (naturally present in food). Adding sugar to food particularly enhances taste, but does increase the total number of calories, among other negative effects on health and physiology.
In the United States of America, sugar has become increasingly evident in food products, as more food manufacturers add sugar or high fructose corn syrup to a wide variety of consumables. Candy bars, soft drinks, chips, snacks, fruit juice, peanut butter, soups, ice cream, jams, jellies, yogurt, and many breads may have added sugars.
Concerns of vegetarians and vegans The sugar refining industry often uses bone char (calcinated animal bones) for decolorizing.[15][16] This may concern some vegans and vegetarians; about a quarter of the sugar in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter and the rest is processed with activated carbon. As bone char does not get into the sugar, the relevant authorities consider sugar processed this way as parve/kosher.[16]
Other concerns
Animal welfare issues Individuals concerned about animal welfare issues may object to the impact that the burning of the cane fields (a common part of the harvesting practice) has on insects, rats, snakes, and other life residing in the fields.[17]
Production
Harvested sugarcane from India ready for processing.Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and sugar beets (Beta vulgaris), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Some minor commercial sugar crops include the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), and the sugar maple (Acer saccharum). In the financial year 2001/2002, worldwide production of sugar amounted to 134.1 million tonnes.
The first production of sugar from sugarcane took place in India. Alexander the Great's companions reported seeing "honey produced without the intervention of bees" and it remained exotic in Europe until the Arabs started cultivating it in Sicily and Spain. Only after the Crusades did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the West Indies in 1506 (and in Cuba in 1523). The Portuguese first cultivated sugarcane in Brazil in 1532.
Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, such as Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Mexico and Australia, the top sugar-producing countries in the world.[18] Brazil overshadows most countries, with roughly 30 million tonnes of cane sugar produced in 2006, while India produced 21 million, China 11 million, and Thailand and Mexico roughly 5 million each. Viewed by region, Asia predominates in cane sugar production, with large contributions from China, India and Thailand and other countries combining to account for 40% of global production in 2006. South America comes in second place with 32% of global production; Africa and Central America each produce 8% and Australia 5%. The United States, the Caribbean and Europe make up the remainder, with roughly 3% each.[18]
Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity, and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing - the industry can lay up harvested beet until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.
The European Union (EU) has become the world's second-largest sugar exporter. The Common Agricultural Policy of the EU sets maximum quotas for members' production to match supply and demand, and a price. Europe exports excess production quota (approximately 5 million tonnes in 2003). Part of this, "quota" sugar, gets subsidised from industry levies, the remainder (approximately half) sells as "C quota" sugar at market prices without subsidy. These subsidies and a high import tariff make it difficult for other countries to export to the EU states, or to compete with the Europeans on world markets.
The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former consumers of sugar have switched to corn syrup (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candymakers).
The cheap prices of glucose syrups produced from wheat and corn (maize) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with artificial sweeteners, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods.
Cane Main article: Sugarcane Since the 6th century BC cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid (often with lime (calcium oxide)) to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. Centrifuges usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the resultant sugar, as is, for use; or process it further to produce lighter grades. This processing may take place in another factory in another country. Sugar cane appears fourth in the list [3] for agriculture in China.
Beet
Sugar beetsMain article: Sugar beet Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a "diffuser". An alkaline solution ("milk of lime" and carbon dioxide from the lime kiln) then serves to precipitate impurities (see carbonatation). After filtration, evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as molasses.
Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.
Cane versus beet Little perceptible difference exists between sugar produced from beet and that from cane. Chemical tests can distinguish the two, and some tests aim to detect fraudulent abuse of European Union subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated fruit juice.
The production of sugarcane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet, therefore some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as Egypt) have seen the building of new beet sugar factories recently[update]. On the other hand, sugar cane tolerates hot climates better. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way.
The production of sugar results in residues which differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cooks often use cane molasses in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beet unpalatable, and it therefore ends up mostly as industrial fermentation feedstock (for example in alcohol distilleries), or as animal feed. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning.
Culinary sugars
Grainier, raw sugar.So-called raw sugars comprise yellow to brown sugars made by clarifying the source syrup by boiling and drying with heat, until it becomes a crystalline solid, with minimal chemical processing.[citation needed] Raw beet sugars result from the processing of sugar beet juice, but only as intermediates en route to white sugar. Types of raw sugar include demerara, muscovado, and turbinado. Mauritius and Malawi export significant quantities of such specialty sugars. Manufacturers sometimes prepare raw sugar as loaves rather than as a crystalline powder, by pouring sugar and molasses together into molds and allowing the mixture to dry. This results in sugar-cakes or loaves, called jaggery or gur in India, pingbian tang in China, and panela, panocha, pile, piloncillo and pão-de-açúcar in various parts of Latin America. In South America, truly raw sugar, unheated and made from sugarcane grown on farms, does not have a large market-share.
Mill white sugar, also called plantation white, crystal sugar, or superior sugar, consists of raw sugar where the production process does not remove colored impurities, but rather bleaches them white by exposure to sulfur dioxide. Though the most common form of sugar in sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well; after a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping.
Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, comes from precipitating many impurities out of the cane juice by using phosphatation — a treatment with phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide similar to the carbonatation technique used in beet sugar refining. In terms of sucrose purity, blanco directo is more pure than mill white, but less pure than white refined sugar.
White refined sugar has become the most common form of sugar in North America as well as in Europe. Refined sugar can be made by dissolving raw sugar and purifying it with a phosphoric acid method similar to that used for blanco directo, a carbonatation process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of activated carbon or bone char depending on where the processing takes place. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage. White refined sugar is typically sold as granulated sugar, which has been dried to prevent clumping.
Granulated sugar comes in various crystal sizes — for home and industrial use — depending on the application:
Coarse-grained sugars, such as sanding sugar (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", nibbed sugar or sugar nibs) adds "sparkle" and flavor for decorating to baked goods, candies, cookies/biscuits and other desserts. The sparkling effect occurs because the sugar forms large crystals which reflect light. Sanding sugar, a large-crystal sugar, serves for making edible decorations. It has larger granules that sparkle when sprinkled on baked goods and candies and will not dissolve when subjected to heat. Normal granulated sugars for table use: typically they have a grain size about 0.5 mm across Finer grades result from selectively sieving the granulated sugar caster (or castor[19]) (0.35 mm), commonly used in baking, originally sprinkled from a castor. superfine sugar, also called baker's sugar, berry sugar, or bar sugar — favored for sweetening drinks or for preparing meringue Finest grades Powdered sugar, 10X sugar, confectioner's sugar (0.060 mm), or icing sugar (0.024 mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of anticaking agent to prevent clumping — either cornstarch (1% to 3%) or tri-calcium phosphate.
Sugar cubes close-up.Retailers also sell sugar cubes or lumps for convenient consumption of a standardized amount. Suppliers of sugarcubes make them by mixing sugar crystals with sugar syrup. Jakub Kryštof Rad invented sugarcubes in 1841 in the Austrian Empire (what is now the Czech Republic).
Brown sugar crystals.Brown sugars come from the late stages of sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup. Their color and taste become stronger with increasing molasses content, as do their moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.
The World Health Organisation and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations expert report (WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases) defines free sugars as all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices. This includes all the sugars referred to above. The term distinguishes these forms from all other culinary sugars added in their natural form with no refining at all.
Natural sugars comprise all completely unrefined sugars: effectively all sugars not defined as free sugars. The WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases approves only natural sugars as carbohydrates for unrestricted consumption. Natural sugars come in fruit, grains and vegetables in their natural or cooked form.
Chemistry
Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body.Biochemists regard sugars as relatively simple carbohydrates. Sugars include monosaccharides, disaccharides, trisaccharides and the oligosaccharides - containing 1, 2, 3, and 4 or more monosaccharide units respectively. Sugars contain either aldehyde groups (-CHO) or ketone groups (C=O), where there are carbon-oxygen double bonds, making the sugars reactive. Most simple sugars (monosaccharides) conform to (CH2O)n where n is between 3 and 7. A notable exception, deoxyribose, as its name suggests, has a "missing" oxygen atom. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (H2O) per bond. Sugars can also be used as monomers to create biopolymers such as cellulose, which is made of glucose, or DNA, which uses deoxyribose as a backbone.
As well as using classifications based on their reactive group, chemists may also subdivide sugars according to the number of carbons they contain. Derivatives of trioses (C3H6O3) are intermediates in glycolysis. Pentoses (5-carbon sugars) include ribose and deoxyribose, which form part of nucleic acids. Ribose also forms a component of several chemicals that have importance in the metabolic process, including NADH and ATP. Hexoses (6-carbon sugars) include glucose, a universal substrate for the production of energy in the form of ATP. Through photosynthesis plants produce glucose, which has the formula C6H12O6, and convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as starch, or (as in cane and beet) as sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose has the chemical formula C12H22O11.
Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.
Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyse or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolised. After digestion and absorption. the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
The prefix "glyco-" indicates the presence of a sugar in an otherwise non-carbohydrate substance. Note for example glycoproteins, proteins connected to one or more sugars.
Monosaccharides include fructose, glucose, galactose and mannose. Disaccharides occur most commonly as sucrose (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), lactose (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and maltose (made of two glucoses). These disaccharides have the formula C12H22O11.
Hydrolysis can convert sucrose into a syrup of fructose and glucose, producing invert sugar. This resulting syrup, sweeter than the original sucrose,[20] has uses in making confections because it does not crystallize as easily and thus produces a smoother finished product.
If combined with fine ash, sugar will burn with a blue flame.
Measuring sugar See also International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis
Dissolved sugar content Scientists and the sugar industry use degrees Brix (symbol °Bx), introduced by Antoine Brix, as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25 grams of sucrose per 100 grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25 grams of sucrose sugar and 75 grams of water exist in the 100 grams of solution.
An infrared Brix sensor measures the vibrational frequency of the sugar molecules, giving a Brix degrees measurement. This does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of total dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.
Purity Technicians usually measure the purity (sucrose content) of sugar by polarimetry — the measurement of the rotation of plane-polarized light by a solution of sugar.
Baking weight/mass volume relationship Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.
The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:
Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz Bulk Density[21]
Trade and economics Historically one of the most widely-traded commodities in the world, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market.[citation needed] International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents per pound in the past[update] 50 years. Of the world's 180-odd countries, around 100 produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40 kg/person/yr in Belgium.[citation needed] Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35 kg per person per year in middle income countries.
World raw sugar price for the calendar years 1960 to 2006.Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan and many developing countries subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often exceeded prices on the international market by up to three times; today[update], with world market sugar futures prices currently[update] strong, such prices typically exceed world prices by two times.
Within international trade bodies, especially in the World Trade Organization, the "G20" countries led by Brazil have long argued that because these sugar markets essentially exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under free trade. While both the European Union and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and less developed country (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the "most favoured nation" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past.[22]
In 2004, the WTO sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ACP-EU Sugar Protocol (whereby a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market) illegal.[23] In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures on the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22 June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime, cutting prices by 39% and eliminating all EU sugar exports.[24] The African, Caribbean, Pacific and least developed country sugar exporters reacted with dismay to the EU sugar proposals,[25]. On 25 November 2005 the Council of the EU agreed to cut EU sugar prices by 36% as from 2009. In 2007 it seemed[26] that the U.S. Sugar Program could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7 million to US House and US Senate incumbents in the 2006 US election, more than any other group of US food-growers.[27] Especially prominent lobbyists include The Fanjul Brothers, so-called "sugar barons" who made the single largest[update] individual contributions of soft money to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the political system of the United States of America.[28][29]
Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as 'fair trade' commodities; the fair trade system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the Fairtrade Foundation offers a premium of USD 60.00 per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as "Fairtrade",[30] government schemes such the U.S. Sugar Program and the ACP Sugar Protocol[31] offer premiums of around USD 400.00 per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on 14 September 2007 that it had offered "to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU".[32]
The Sugar Association has launched a campaign to promote sugar over artificial substitutes. The Association now[update] aggressively challenges many common beliefs regarding negative side effects of sugar consumption. The campaign aired a high-profile television commercial during the 2007 Prime Time Emmy Awards on FOX Television. The Sugar Association uses the trademark tagline "Sugar: sweet by nature."[33]
See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sugars Barley sugar Biobutanol Caramel Glycomics Golden syrup Holing cane List of unrefined sweeteners Sugar alcohol Sugar plantations in the Caribbean Sugar loaf Sugar substitute The Hawaiian Vibora Luviminda trades union Saccharophilic pathogen
Notes ^ Wuebben, Joseph and Mike Carlson. "Sugar: What Kinds to Eat and When." http://men.webmd.com/features/...-what-kinds-eat-when ^ Adas, Michael (January 2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320. Page 311. ^ Sharpe, Peter (1998). Sugar Cane: Past and Present. Illinois: Southern Illinois University. ^ Compare the OED and the Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries, History of Science and Technology in Islam. ^ Tooth Decay ^ What causes tooth decay? ^ What I need to know about Eating and Diabetes ^ What if It's All Been a Big Fat Lie? - New York Times ^ WHO | Obesity and overweight ^ http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7219473.stm retrieved 2008-02-06 ^ Pär Stattin, Ove Björ, Pietro Ferrari, Annekatrin Lukanova, Per Lenner, Bernt Lindahl, Göran Hallmans, and Rudolf Kaaks (2007). "Prospective Study of Hyperglycemia and Cancer Risk". Diabetes Care 30: 561–567. doi:10.2337/dc06-0922. PMID 17327321. http://care.diabetesjournals.o...nt/abstract/30/3/561. ^ See table 6, page 56 of the WHO Technical Report Series 916, Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases: online at http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/...c911e07.htm#bm07.1.3 ^ The Great Sugar Debate: Is it Vegan? ^ a b Yacoubou, MS, Jeanne (2007). "Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices" (PDF). Vegetarian Journal (Baltimore, MD: The Vegetarian Resource Group) 26 (4): 16–20. https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj...ue4/vj2007issue4.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-04-04. ^ SKIL - How Sugar Cane Is Made ^ a b Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ^ The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) classifies both spellings as correct, but "castor" used to prevail. ^ scientificpsychic.com: link inaccessible as of 2008-06-04 ^ "Engineering Resources - Bulk Density Chart," Powder and Bulk [1] ^ www.americansugarcouncil.gov/i...tariffhist/history01 ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tra...sum_e/ds266sum_e.pdf ^ Agriculture - Sugar ^ ACP Group of States - The Fiji Communiqué on Sugar ^ International Sugar Trade Coalition ^ New York Times, October 18, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10...usiness/18sugar.html ^ New York Times, November 11, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html ^ http://www.motherjones.com/new...mojo_400/boller.html ^ FLO (Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International) ^ European Commission - External Trade - Trade Issues ^ European Commission - External Trade - Trade Issues ^ Sugar Association
References Adas, Michael (January 2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320. OCLC 44493265. James, Glyn (2004). Sugarcane. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 063205476X. OCLC 51837990 84251137. A C Hannah, The International Sugar Trade, Cambridge: Woodhead, 1996. ISBN 1-85573-069-3 William Dufty, Sugar Blues, ISBN 0-446-34312-9
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Spaghetti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Spaghetti (disambiguation).
Cooked spaghetti Spaghetti served with tomato sauce and Parmesan cheeseSpaghetti is a long, thin, cylindrical pasta of Italian origin.[1] A variety of pasta dishes are based on it, from spaghetti with cheese and pepper or garlic and oil to a spaghetti with tomato, meat, and other sauces. Spaghetti is made of semolina or flour and water.
Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 Origins 3 Preparation 4 Serving 5 Cultural references 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
[edit] Etymology Spaghetti is the plural form of the Italian word spaghetto, which is a diminutive of spago, meaning "thin string" or "twine". The word spaghetti can be literally translated as "little lines."
[edit] Origins Chinese noodles pre-date Italian pasta,[2] and Arab traders most likely became introduced to them due to their trade routes with China. Historically, people in Italy ate pasta in the form of gnocchi-like dumplings – pasta fresca eaten as soon as it was prepared. It has now been asserted that the Muslims who populated Southern Italy (around the 12th Century) were the first to develop the innovation of working pasta from grain into thin long forms,[3][4] capable of being dried out and stored for months or years prior to consumption (see Peter Robb's Midnight in Sicily pp 94-96 for details). Possibly, Muslim traders with links to Arab trade routes to China may have been introduced to pasta or noodles that way. The Saracens, originally from North Africa, invaded southern Italy in the 9th century and occupied Sicily for 200 years. Pasta is now associated with Italians as a whole. The popularity of pasta spread to the whole of Italy after the establishment of pasta factories in the 19th century, enabling the mass production of pasta for the Italian market.[5]
In the United States around the end of the 1800s, spaghetti was offered in restaurants as Spaghetti Italienne (which likely consisted of extremely soggy noodles and a tomato sauce diluted with broth) and it wasn't until decades later that it came to be prepared with garlic or peppers.[6] Canned spaghetti, kits for making spaghetti, and spaghetti with meat***** became popular, and the dish has become a staple in that country.[6]
[edit] Preparation
Spaghetti during cookingSpaghetti is cooked by boiling the pasta in water and adding either salt or olive oil. The consistency or texture of spaghetti changes as it is cooked. The most popular consistency is al dente (Italian 'to the tooth'); that is, soft but with texture, sometimes even with bite in the center. Others prefer their spaghetti cooked to a softer consistency. The best dried spaghetti is made from durum wheat semolina. Inferior spaghetti is often found produced with other kinds of flour, especially outside Italy. Fresh spaghetti should be prepared with grade '00' flour.[citation needed]. There are two other variants of spaghetti that require different cooking times. Spaghettini ("thin spaghetti") (also "angel hair spaghetti") takes less time (usually two minutes less) to cook to al dente form than regular spaghetti. There is also spaghettoni ("thick spaghetti") which takes longer to cook. All three types of spaghetti are larger than the other round-rod pastas (like vermicelli).
[edit] Serving
Classic Spaghetti Carbonara.An emblem of Italian cuisine, spaghetti is frequently served with tomato sauce, which may contain various herbs (especially oregano, and basil), olive oil, meat, or vegetables. Other spaghetti preparations include using Bolognese sauce, carbonara, and chili. Grated hard cheeses, such as Pecorino Romano, Parmesan, and Asiago cheese, are often added.
The manner of eating spaghetti varies according to local customs, but it is traditionally eaten by twisting the spaghetti around a fork.[citation needed] Eating spaghetti with a fork and a spoon is considered perfectly polite in parts of the United States,[citation needed] although this method is disparaged by some. In East Asia, many people use chopsticks as a form of eating rather than forks, as chopsticks are customary in most East Asian countries.[citation needed]
[edit] Cultural references On April Fools' Day, 1957, the BBC ran a very successful spoof documentary explaining how spaghetti is grown on spaghetti trees.[7] The parody religion Pastafarianism holds that the universe was created by a Flying Spaghetti Monster.[8] "Spaghetti" can be used to describe objects which are complicated or tangled, such as spaghetti code or Spaghetti Junction. Spaghettieis is a mock dessert which looks like spaghetti with tomato sauce.
[edit] See also Carbonara Lai fun Spaghetti squash Capellini List of pasta Fideo
[edit] References ^ spaghetti. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/spaghetti (accessed: June 03, 2008). ^ (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article577909.ece) ^ (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFD91630F934A35751C1A96E948260) ^ (http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198607/pasta) ^ (The Italian Kitchen Bible by Kate Whiteman, Jeni Wright and Angela Boggiano, (Hermes House) p.12, 13) ^ a b Levenstein, Harvey; in Carole M. Counihan (ed.) (2002). Food in the USA: A Reader. Routledge. pp. 77-89. ISBN 0-415-93232-7. ^ BBC News. "1957: BBC fools the nation". http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisda..._2819000/2819261.stm. ^ "The dangers of creationism in education". Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. http://assembly.coe.int/Main.a.../Doc07/EDOC11375.htm. Retrieved on 2009-07-14.
[edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Spaghetti Paper on the physics of fragmenting spaghetti (PDF) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghetti" Categories: Pasta | Italian loanwords Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2008ViewsArticle Discussion Edit this page History Personal toolsTry Beta Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية Български Català Česky Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Kiswahili Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lojban Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk (bokmål) Norsk (nynorsk) Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt West-Vlams 中文
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