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Snake
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Snakes
Fossil range: 145–0 Ma PreЄЄOSDCPTJKPgNCretaceous – Recent

Common garter snake,
Thamnophis sirtalis
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Class: Reptilia

Order: Squamata

Suborder: Serpentes
Linnaeus, 1758

World range of snakes
(rough range of sea snakes in blue)
Infraorders
Alethinophidia – Nopcsa, 1923
Scolecophidia – Cope, 1864

This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation).
Snakes are elongate legless carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Like lizards, from which they evolved, they have loosely articulated skulls and most can swallow prey much larger than their own head. In order to accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca.

Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. Fifteen families are currently recognized comprising 456 genera and over 2,900 species.[1][2] They range in size from the tiny, 10 cm long thread snake to pythons and anacondas of up to 7.6 m (25 ft) in length. The recently discovered fossil Titanoboa was 13 m or 43 ft long. Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the Cretaceous period (c 150 Ma). The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 Ma).

Most species are non-venomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans.

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Evolution
3 Taxonomy
4 Families
5 Skeleton
6 Size comparison
7 Skin
7.1 Moulting
8 Perception
8.1 Eyesight
8.2 Smell
8.3 Vibration sensitivity
8.4 Infrared sensitivity
9 Feeding and diet
10 Internal organs
11 Locomotion
11.1 Lateral undulation
11.1.1 Terrestrial
11.1.2 Aquatic
11.2 Sidewinding
11.3 Concertina locomotion
11.4 Rectilinear locomotion
11.5 Other
12 Reproduction
13 Venom
14 Interactions with humans
14.1 Snake bite
14.2 Snake charmers
14.3 Snake trapping
14.4 Human consumption
14.5 As pets
14.6 Symbolism
14.7 In religion
15 See also
16 References
17 Further reading
18 External links

Etymology
The English word snake comes from Old English snaca, itself from Proto-Germanic *snak-an- (cf. German Schnake "ring snake", Swedish snok "grass snake"), from Proto-Indo-European root *(s)nēg-o- "to crawl, creep", which also gave sneak as well as Sanskrit nāgá "snake".[3] The word ousted adder as it went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre was the general word for snake.[4] The other term, serpent, is a french word, ultimately from Indo-European *serp- "to creep"[5] which also gave Greek érpein (ερπω) "to crawl".

Evolution
The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small and fragile, making fossilization uncommon. However 150 million-year-old specimens, readily identifiable as snakes, yet with lizard-like skeletal structures, have been uncovered in South America and Africa.[6]:11 There is consensus, on the basis of comparative anatomy, that snakes descended from lizards.[6]:11[7] Fossil evidence suggests that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the varanids or a similar group during the Cretaceous Period.[8] An early fossil snake, Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial.[9] One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitor Lanthanotus of Borneo, although it also is semi-aquatic.[10] Subterranean forms evolved bodies that were streamlined for burrowing and lost their limbs.[10] According to this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulies such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears.[8][10] Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lack a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, which are slightly older than Najash.[11]

Fossil of Archaeophis proavusPrimitive groups among the modern snakes, pythons and boas, have vestigial hind limbs; tiny, clawed digits known as **** spurs which are used to grasp during mating.[6]:11[11] Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae are other groups where remnants of the pelvic girdle are present, sometimes appearing as ***** projections when visible. The frontal limbs are non-existent in all snakes and this loss is associated with the evolution of the Hox genes controlling limb morphogenesis. The axial skeleton of the snakes' common ancestor, like most other tetrapods had regional specializations consisting of cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic) and caudal (tail) vertebrae. The Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became dominant early in snake evolution and as a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the same thoracic-like identity (except from the atlas, axis and one to three neck vertebrae), making most of the snake's skeleton being composed of an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae. The neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in number (only two to ten lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are still present), while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae, although the tail is still long enough to be of good use in many species, and is modified in some aquatic and tree dwelling species.

Texas coral snake, Micrurus tenerAn alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests that the ancestors of snakes were related to mosasaurs — extinct aquatic reptiles from the Cretaceous — which in turn are thought to have derived from varanid lizards.[7] Under this hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of snakes are thought to have evolved to combat marine conditions (corneal water-loss through osmosis), while the external ears were lost through disuse in an aquatic environment, ultimately leading to an animal similar in appearance to sea snakes of today. In the Late Cretaceous, snakes re-colonized land to appear as they are today. Fossil snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments, which is consistent with this hypothesis, particularly as they are older than the terrestrial Najash rionegrina. Similar skull structure; reduced/absent limbs; and other anatomical features found in both mosasaurs and snakes lead to a positive cladistical correlation, although some of these features are shared with varanids. In recent years, genetic studies have indicated that snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards as it was once believed, and therefore not to mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic scenario of their evolution. However, there is more evidence linking mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids. Fragmentary remains that have been found from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate deeper fossil records for these groups, which may eventually refute either hypothesis.

The great diversity of modern snakes appeared in the Paleocene, correlating with the adaptive radiation of mammals following the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. One of the more common groups today, the colubrids, became particularly diverse due to their preying on rodents, a mammal group that has been particularly successful. There are over 2,900 species of snakes ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and southward through Australia and Tasmania.[7] Snakes can be found on every continent (with the exception of Antarctica), dwelling in the sea, and as high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m)in the Himalayan Mountains of Asia.[7][12]:143 There are numerous islands from which snakes are conspicuously absent such as Ireland, Iceland, and New Zealand.[12]:143

Taxonomy

Rough phylogeny of snakesAll modern snakes are grouped within the suborder Serpentes in Linnean taxonomy, part of the order Squamata, though their precise placement within squamates is controversial.[1] There are two infraorders of Serpentes: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia.[1] This separation is based on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity. Alethinophidia is sometimes split into Henophidia and Caenophidia, with the latter consisting of "Colubroid" snakes (colubrids, vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and attractaspids) and acrochordids, while the other alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia[13]. While not extant today, the Madtsoiidae, a family of giant, primitive, python-like snakes, was around until 50,000 years ago in Australia, represented by genera such as Wonambi.

There are numerous debates in the systematics within the group. For instance, many sources classify Boidae and Pythonidae as one family, while some keep the Elapidae and Hydrophiidae, separate for practical reasons despite their extremely close relation.

Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of the clades of modern snakes, scolecophidians, typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core alethinophidians, uropeltids (Cylindrophis, Anomochilus, uropeltines), macrostomatans, booids, boids, pythonids and caenophidians.[14]

Modern snakes Scolecophidia
Leptotyphlopidae

Anomalepididae

Typhlopidae

Alethinophidia
Anilius

Core Alethinophidia Uropeltidae
Cylindrophis

Anomochilus

Uropeltinae

Macrostomata Pythonidae
Pythoninae

Xenopeltis

Loxocemus

Caenophidia
Colubroidea

Acrochordidae

Boidae
Erycinae

Boinae

Calabaria

Ungaliophiinae

Tropidophiinae

Note that the tree only indicates relationships not evolutionary branching times.[14]

Families
Infraorder Alethinophidia 15 families
Family[1] Taxon author[1] Genera[1] Species[1] Common name Geographic range[15]
Acrochordidae Bonaparte, 1831 1 3 Wart snakes Western India and Sri Lanka through tropical Southeast Asia to the Philippines, south through the Indonesian/Malaysian island group to Timor, east through New Guinea to the northern coast of Australia to Mussau Island, the Bismark Archipelago and Guadalcanal Island in the Solomon Islands.
Aniliidae Stejneger, 1907 1 1 False coral snake Tropical South America.
Anomochilidae Cundall, Wallach, 1993 1 2 Dwarf pipe snakes West Malaysia and on the Indonesian island of Sumatra.
Atractaspididae Günther, 1858 12 64 Burrowing asps Africa and the Middle East.[6][16][17]
Boidae Gray, 1825 8 43 Boas Northern, Central and South America, the Caribbean, southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, Northern, Central and East Africa, Madagascar and Reunion Island, the Arabian Peninsula, Central and southwestern Asia, India and Sri Lanka, the Moluccas and New Guinea through to Melanesia and Samoa.
Bolyeriidae Hoffstetter, 1946 2 2 Splitjaw snakes Mauritius.
Colubridae Oppel, 1811 304[2] 1938[2] Typical snakes Widespread on all continents, except Antarctica.[18]
Cylindrophiidae Fitzinger, 1843 1 8 Asian pipe snakes Sri Lanka east through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Malay Archipelago to as far east as Aru Islands off the southwestern coast of New Guinea. Also found in southern China (Fujian, Hong Kong and on Hainan Island) and in Laos.
Elapidae Boie, 1827 61 235 Elapids On land, worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, except in Europe. Sea snakes occur in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific.[19]
Loxocemidae Cope, 1861 1 1 Mexican burrowing snake Along the Pacific versant from Mexico south to Costa Rica.
Pythonidae Fitzinger, 1826 8 26 Pythons Subsaharan Africa, peninsular India, Myanmar, southern China, Southeast Asia and from the Philippines southeast through Indonesia to New Guinea and Australia.
Tropidophiidae Brongersma, 1951 4 22 Dwarf boas From southern Mexico and Central America, south to northwestern South America in Colombia, (Amazonian) Ecuador and Peru, as well as in northwestern and southeastern Brazil. Also found in the West Indies.
Uropeltidae Müller, 1832 8 47 Shield-tailed snakes Southern India and Sri Lanka.
Viperidae Oppel, 1811 32 224 Vipers The Americas, Africa and Eurasia.
Xenopeltidae Bonaparte, 1845 1 2 Sunbeam snakes Southeast Asia from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, east through Myanmar to southern China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies to Sulawesi, as well as the Philippines.

Infraorder Scolecophidia 3 families
Family[1] Taxon author[1] Genera[1] Species[1] Common name Geographic range[15]
Anomalepidae Taylor, 1939 4 15 Primitive blind snakes From southern Central America to northwestern South America. Disjunct populations in northeastern and southeastern South America.
Leptotyphlopidae Stejneger, 1892 2 87 Slender blind snakes Africa, western Asia from Turkey to northwestern India, on Socotra Island, from the southwestern United States south through Mexico and Central America to South America, though not in the high Andes. In Pacific South America they occur as far south as southern coastal Peru, and on the Atlantic side as far as Uruguay and Argentina. In the Caribbean they are found on the Bahamas, Hispaniola and the Lesser Antilles.
Typhlopidae Merrem, 1820 6 203 Typical blind snakes Most tropical and many subtropical regions around the world, particularly in Africa, Madagascar, Asia, islands in the Pacific, tropical America and in southeastern Europe.

Skeleton
The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs, though henophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs. The skull of the snake consists of a solid and complete braincase, to which many of the other bones are only loosely attached, particularly the highly mobile jaw bones, which facilitate manipulation and ingestion of large prey items. The left and right sides of the lower jaw are joined only by a flexible ligament at the anterior tips, allowing them to separate widely, while the posterior end of the lower jaw bones articulate with a quadrate bone, allowing further mobility. The bones of the mandible and quadrate bones can also pick up ground borne vibrations.[20] The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for muscles of the snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.

The vertebral column consists of anywhere between 200 to over 400 vertebrae. Tail vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs, while body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The vertebrae have projections that allow for strong muscle attachment enabling locomotion without limbs. Autotomy of the tail, a feature found in some lizards is absent in most snakes.[21] Caudal autotomy in snakes is rare and is intervertebral unlike that seen in lizards which is intravertebral, that is, the break happens along a predefined fracture plane present on a vertebra.[22][23]

An adult Barbados threadsnake, Leptotyphlops carlae, on an American quarter dollar
Size comparison
The now extinct Titanoboa cerrejonensis snakes found were between 12 and 15 meters (39 and 49 ft) in length. In comparison, the largest extant snakes are the reticulated python, which measures about 9 meters (30 ft) long, and the anaconda, which measures about 7.5 meters (25 ft) long[24] and is considered the heaviest snake on Earth. At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake is Leptotyphlops carlae with a length of about 10 centimeters (4 in).[25]

Skin
Main article: Snake scales
The skin of a snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of snakes being slimy because of possible confusion of snakes with worms, snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, gripping surfaces. The body scales may be smooth, keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent "spectacle" scales which remain permanently closed, also known as brille.

A line diagram from G.A. Boulenger's Fauna of British India (1890) illustrating the terminology of shields on the head of a snakeThe shedding of scales is called ecdysis, or, in normal usage moulting or sloughing. In the case of snakes, the complete outer layer of skin is shed in one layer.[26] Snake scales are not discrete but extensions of the epidermis hence they are not shed separately, but are ejected as a complete contiguous outer layer of skin during each moult, akin to a sock being turned inside out.[27]

The shape and number of scales on the head, back and belly can be characteristic are often used for taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to their positions on the body. In "advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae, allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection. Snake's eyes are covered by their clear scales rather than movable eyelids; therefore, their eyes are always open.[citation needed]

Moulting
Moulting serves a number of functions – firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced, secondly, it helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. Renewal of the skin by moulting is supposed to allow growth in some animals such as insects, however this view has been disputed in the case of snakes.[27][28]

A snake shedding its skinMoulting is repeated periodically throughout a snake's life. Before a moult, the snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just before shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The inner surface of the old outer skin liquefies. This causes the old outer skin to separate from the new inner skin. After a few days, the eyes clear and the snake "crawls" out of its old skin. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake wriggles out aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases the cast skin peels backward over the body from head to tail, in one piece like an old sock. A new, larger, and brighter layer of skin has formed underneath.[27][29]

An older snake may shed its skin only once or twice a year, but a younger, still-growing snake, may shed up to four times a year.[29] The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale pattern and it is usually possible to identify the snake if this discard is reasonably complete and intact.[27] This periodic renewal has led to the snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as pictured in the Rod of Asclepius.[30]

Perception

Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouse
Eyesight
Snake vision varies greatly, from only being able to distinguish light from dark to keen eyesight, but the main trend is that their vision is adequate although not sharp, and allows them to track movements.[31] Generally, vision is best in arboreal snakes and weakest in burrowing snakes. Some snakes, such as the Asian vine snake (genus Ahaetulla), have binocular vision, with both eyes capable of focusing on the same point. Most snakes focus by moving the lens back and forth in relation to the retina, while in the other amniote groups, the lens is stretched.

Smell
Snakes use smell to track their prey. It smells by using its forked tongue to collect airborne particles then passing them to the Jacobson's organ or the Vomeronasal organ in the mouth for examination.[32] The fork in the tongue gives the snake a sort of directional sense of smell and taste simultaneously.[32] The snake keeps its tongue constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air, ground, and water analyzing the chemicals found and determining the presence of prey or predators in its local environment.[32]

Vibration sensitivity
The part of the body which is in direct contact with the surface of the ground is very sensitive to vibration, thus a snake is able to sense other animals approaching through detecting faint vibrations in the air and on the ground.[32]

Infrared sensitivity
Pit vipers, pythons, and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep grooves between the nostril and eye, although some have *****l pits on their upper lip just below the nostrils (common in pythons) which allow them to "see" the radiated heat.[32] Infrared sensitivity helps snakes locate nearby prey, especially warm-blooded mammals.

Feeding and diet

Snake eating a rodent
Carpet python constricting and consuming a chicken.All snakes are strictly carnivorous, eating small animals including lizards, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails or insects.[6]:81[7][33] Because snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces, a snake must swallow its prey whole. The body size of a snake has a major influence on its eating habits. Smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.

African Egg-eating snakeThe snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snakes can dislocate their jaws, snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in their skull (see snake skull), allowing them to open their mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake itself,[33] as snakes do not chew. For example, the African Egg-eating Snake has flexible jaws adapted for eating eggs much larger than the diameter of its head.[6]:81 This snake has no teeth, but does have bony protrusions on the inside edge of its spine which are used to aid in breaking the shells of the eggs it eats.[6]:81

While the majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, there is some specialization by some species. King cobras and the Australian Bandy-bandy consume other snakes. Pareas iwesakii and other snail-eating Colubrids of subfamily Pareatinae have more teeth on the right side of their mouths than on the left, as the shells of their prey usually spiral clockwise[6]:184[34]

Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[33][35] Other snakes kill their prey by constriction.[33] Still others swallow their prey whole and alive.[6]:81[33]

After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place.[36] Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of very large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy, and the digestive system is 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being cold-blooded (ectothermic), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in a snake's digestion. 30℃ is the ideal temperature for snakes to digest their food. So much metabolic energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in Crotalus durissus, the Mexican rattlesnake, an increase of body temperature to as much as 1.2℃ above the surrounding environment has been observed.[37] Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey in order to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair and claws, which are excreted along with waste.

Internal organs

Anatomy of a snake. 1 esophagus, 2 trachea, 3 tracheal lungs, 4 rudimentary left lung, 5 right lung, 6 heart, 7 liver, 8 stomach, 9 air sac, 10 gallbladder, 11 pancreas, 12 spleen, 13 intestine, 14 testicles, 15 kidneys.The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the bifurcation of the bronchi. The heart is able to move around, however, owing to the lack of a diaphragm. This adjustment protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is passed through the esophagus. The spleen is attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and filters the blood. The thymus gland is located in fatty tissue above the heart and is responsible for the generation of immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system of snakes is also unique for the presence of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snake's tail passes through the kidneys before returning to the heart.[38]

The vestigial left lung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes' tubular bodies require all of their organs to be long and thin.[38] In the majority of species, only one lung is functional. This lung contains a vascularized anterior portion and a posterior portion which does not function in gas exchange.[38] This 'saccular lung' is used for hydrostatic purposes to adjust buoyancy in some aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in terrestrial species.[38] Many organs that are paired, such as kidneys or reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, with one located ahead of the other.[38] Snakes have no colenary bladder or lymph nodes.[38]

Locomotion
The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes, and they have developed several different modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which form a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others, and transitions between modes are abrupt.[39][40]

Lateral undulation
See also: Lateral undulation
Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion.[40] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving 'waves'.[39] While this movement appears rapid, snakes have been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often much less.[41] This mode of movement is similar to running in lizards of the same mass.[42]

Terrestrial

Banded sea snake, Laticauda sp.Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake species.[39] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.[39] Each of these environmental objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[43] The speed of this movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8 along the snake's length being ideal.[41] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[43]

Aquatic
When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.[44] Thrust is generated by pushing their body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic vs terrestrial lateral undulation, which justifies calling them separate modes.[45] All snakes can laterally undulate forward (with backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the pattern, i.e. moving backwards via forward-traveling waves.[39]

A Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) sidewinding
Sidewinding

When compared, the skeletons of snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles (such as the turtle, right), being made up almost entirely of an extended ribcage.See also: Sidewinding
Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids, elapids, and vipers) when the snake must move in an environment which lacks any irregularities to push against (and which therefore renders lateral undulation impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune. Sidewinding is a modified form of lateral undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar 'rolling' motion.[46][47] This mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.[46] The static nature of the contact points can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint, without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the cost for a lizard or snake to move the same distance.[42] Contrary to popular beliefs, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated with hot sand.[46]

Concertina locomotion
See also: Concertina movement
When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[39][47] In this mode, the snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake extends and straightens.[46] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very demanding, up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[42] This high cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.

Rectilinear locomotion
See also: Rectilinear locomotion
The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one in which the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.[48] In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the skin.[48] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is most often used by large pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[46]

Other
The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[49] While on tree branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[49] In general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will laterally undulate if contact points are available[49]. Snakes move faster on small branches and when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches with little 'clutter'[49].

Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.[46][50][51] These snakes can perform a controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in mid-air.[46][50]

Reproduction
Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all snakes employ internal fertilization, accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes, which are stored inverted in the male's tail.[52] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined in order to grip the walls of the female's cloaca.[52]

Most species of snake lay eggs, and most of those species abandon them shortly after laying; however, individual species such as the King cobra actually construct nests and stay in the vicinity of the hatchlings after incubation.[52] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches after they have laid them and remain with the eggs until they hatch.[53] The female python will not leave the eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink water and will generate heat to incubate the eggs by shivering.[53]

Some species of snake are ovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their bodies until they are almost ready to hatch.[54][55] Recently, it has been confirmed that several species of snake are fully viviparous, such as the boa constrictor and green anaconda, nourishing their young through a placenta as well as a yolk sac, which is highly unusual among reptiles, or anything else outside of placental mammals.[54][55] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with colder environments, as the retention of the young within the female.[52][55]

Venom
See also: Snake venom

Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in placeCobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize or kill their prey. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs.[6]:243 The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow in order to inject venom more effectively, while the fangs of rear-fanged snakes such as the Boomslang merely have a groove on the posterior edge to channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey specific, its role in self-defense is secondary.[6]:243 Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a pre-digestant which initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds allowing for proper digestion and even "non-venomous" snake bites (like any animal bite) will cause tissue damage.[6]:209

Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes such as kingsnakes that prey on venomous snakes have developed resistance and even immunity to certain venom.[6]:243 Venomous snakes include three families of snakes and do not constitute a formal classification group used in taxonomy. The term poisonous snake is mostly incorrect – poison is inhaled or ingested whereas venom is injected.[56] There are, however, two exceptions – Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it eats then secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators, and a small population of garter snakes in Oregon retains enough toxin in their liver from the newts they eat to be effectively poisonous to local small predators such as crows and foxes.[57]

Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins and are stored in poison glands at the back of the head.[57] In all venomous snakes these glands open through ducts into grooved or hollow teeth in the upper jaw.[6]:243[56] These proteins can potentially be a mix of neurotoxins (which attack the nervous system), hemotoxins (which attack the circulatory system), cytotoxins, bungarotoxins and many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[56] Almost all snake venom contains hyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[6]:243

Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have the fangs that secrete the venom in the front of their mouths, making it easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[56] Some snakes that use neurotoxins, such as the mangrove snake, have their fangs located in the back of their mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.[58] This makes it both difficult for the snake to use its venom and for scientists to milk them.[56] Elapid snakes, however, such as cobras and kraits are proteroglyphous, possessing hollow fangs which cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths and cannot "stab" like a viper, they must actually bite the victim.[6]:242

It has recently been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, the harmless snakes having weak venom and no fangs.[59]. Most snakes that are considered non-venomous would still be considered harmless under this theory, because under most cases the snakes have no way of delivering much or any venom, certainly not enough to kill a human. Also under this theory, snakes may have evolved from a common lizard ancestor that was venomous, from which venomous lizards like the gila monster and beaded lizard may have also derived, as well as the monitor lizards and now extinct mosasaurs. They share this venom clade with various other saurian species.

Venomous snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:

Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian copperheads, sea snakes, and coral snakes.[58]
Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, adders and bushmasters.[58]
There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snakes as well as the majority of other snake species:

Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, mangrove snakes, although not all colubrids are venomous.[6]:209[58]

Interactions with humans

Most common symptoms of any kind of snake bite poisoning.[60] [61] [62] Furthermore, there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.[60]
Snake bite
Main article: Snakebite

Although not venomous, a Green tree python (Morelia viridis) can deliver a biteSnakes do not ordinarily prey on humans and most will not attack humans unless the snake is startled or injured, preferring instead to avoid contact. With the exception of large constrictors, non-venomous snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of non-venomous snakes is usually harmless because their teeth are designed for grabbing and holding, rather than tearing or inflicting a deep puncture wound. Although the possibility of an infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a non-venomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater hazard to humans.[6]:209

Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Non-fatal bites from venomous snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725 species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite. Although Australia is home to the largest number of venomous snakes in the world,[citation needed] it only has one fatal snake bite per year on average. In India, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in a single year with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[63]

The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective method is through antivenom, a serum made from the venom of the snake. Some antivenom is species specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snakes are pit vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce antivenin, a mixture of the venoms of the different species of rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the immunized horse and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenin. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses cannot be treated using antivenin. Antivenin for the more dangerous species (such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa, and Australia with the exception being that those antivenins are species-specific.

An Indian cobra in a basket with a snake charmer. These snakes are perhaps the most common subjects of snake charmings.
Snake charmers
Main article: Snake charming
In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by a charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a basket that contains a snake that he seemingly charms by playing tunes from his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snake responds.[64] Snakes lack external ears, and though they do have internal ears, they show no tendency to be influenced by music.[64]

The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically proscribes snake charming on grounds of reducing animal cruelty. Other snake charmers also have a snake and mongoose show, where both the animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the snakes, as well as the mongooses, may be seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out in India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws proscribing the practice.[64]

Snake trapping
The tribals of "Irulas" from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the hot dry plains forests and have practiced this art for generations. They have a vast knowledge of snakes in the field. Irulas generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple stick. Earlier, the Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the complete ban on snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched to catching snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so collected is used for producing life-saving antivenin, biomedical research and for other medicinal products.[65] The Irulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.

Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers or wranglers. Modern day snake trapping involves a herpetologist using a long stick with a "V" shaped end. Some like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, and Jeff Corwin prefer to catch them using bare hands.

Human consumption

A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake", supposedly Enhydris bocourti) occupies a place of honor among the live delicacies waiting to meet their eaters outside of a Guangzhou restaurantWhile not commonly thought of as a dietary item by most cultures, in some cultures, the consumption of snakes is acceptable, or even considered a delicacy, prized for its alleged pharmaceutical effect of warming the heart. Snake soup of Cantonese cuisine is consumed by local people in autumn, to warm up their body. Western cultures document the consumption of snakes under extreme circumstances of hunger.[66] Cooked rattlesnake meat is an exception, which is commonly consumed in parts of the Midwestern United States. In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, drinking the blood of snakes, particularly the cobra, is believed to increase sexual virility.[67] The blood is drained while the cobra is still alive when possible, and is usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve the taste.[67]

In some Asian countries, the use of snakes in alcohol is also accepted. In such cases, the body of a snake or several snakes is left to steep in a jar or container of liquor. It is claimed that this makes the liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). One example of this is the Habu snake sometimes placed in the Okinawan liquor Awamori also known as "Habu Sake".[68]

As pets
In the Western world some snakes, especially docile species such as the ball python and corn snake, are kept as pets. To supply this demand a captive breeding industry has developed. Snakes bred in captivity tend to make better pets and are considered preferable to wild caught specimens.[69] Snakes can be very low maintenance pets, especially in comparison to more traditional species. They require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed five feet in length. Pet snakes can be fed relatively infrequently, usually once every five to fourteen days. Certain snakes have a life span of more than forty years if given proper care.

Symbolism

Medusa by 16th Century Italian artist Caravaggio
Lilith with a snake, (1892), by John Collier (1892).
Rod of Asclepius, in which the snakes, through ecdysis, symbolize healing.Main article: Serpent (symbolism)
In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of the pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).

In Greek mythology snakes are often associated with deadly and dangerous antagonists, but this is not to say that snakes are symbolic of evil; in fact, snakes are a chthonic symbol, roughly translated as 'earthbound'. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth.[70] Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who Perseus defeated.[70] Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the power to turn men to stone with her gaze.[70] After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis.[70] The Titans are also depicted in art with snakes instead of legs and feet for the same reason—they are children of Gaia and Ouranos (Uranus), so they are bound to the earth.

Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Bowl of Hygieia, symbolizing pharmacy, and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting medicine in general.[30]

India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.[71] Snakes are worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes' aversion for milk).[71] The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva and Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.[72] There are also several temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of Snakes) and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on which day snakes are venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga.

In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book (Genesis 3:1) of the Bible when a serpent appears before the first couple Adam and Eve as an agent of the devil and tempts them with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. The snake returns in Exodus when Moses, as a sign of God's power, turns his staff into a snake and when Moses made the Nehushtan, a bronze snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that plagued them in the desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Satan in the Book of Revelation:"And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years." (Revelation 20:2)

The Ouroboros is a symbol that is associated with many different religions and customs, and is also claimed to be related to Alchemy. The Ouroboros or Oroboros is a snake eating its own tail in a clock-wise direction (from the head to the tail) in the shape of a circle, representing manifestation of one's own life and rebirth, leading to immortality.

The snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese Zodiac, in the Chinese calendar.

Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[73] They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted snakes in their art.[74]

In religion

A snake associated with Saint Simeon StylitesSnakes are a part of Hindu worship. A festival Nag Panchami is celebrated every year on snakes. Most images of Lord Shiva depict snake around his neck. Puranas have various stories associated with Snakes. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as "Ananta-Shesha" which means "Endless Shesha". Other notable snakes in Hinduism are Ananta, Vasuki, Taxak, Karkotaka and Pingala. The term Nāga is used to refer to entities which take the form of large snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Snakes have also been widely revered, such as in ancient Greece, where the serpent was seen as a healer, and Asclepius carried two intertwined on his wand, a symbol seen today on many ambulances. In Judaism, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being saved from imminent death (Book of Numbers 26:6–9). In Christianity, Christ's redemptive work is compared to saving one's life through beholding the serpent of brass (Gospel of John 3:14). However, more commonly in Christianity, the serpent was seen as a representative of evil and sly plo

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Bee
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For information on the disappearing domesticated honey bee colonies in North America and Europe, see Colony Collapse Disorder.
For other uses, see European honey bee and Bee (disambiguation).
Bees

Honeybee (Apis mellifera) collecting pollen
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Suborder: Apocrita

Superfamily: Apoidea

(unranked): Anthophila

Families
Andrenidae
Apidae
Colletidae
Dasypodaidae
Halictidae
Megachilidae
Meganomiidae
Melittidae
Stenotritidae

Synonyms
Apiformes

Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, and are known for their roles of producing honey and beeswax and pollination. Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea, presently classified by the unranked taxon name Anthophila. There are nearly 20,000 known species of bees in nine recognized families,[1] though many are undescribed and the actual number is probably higher. They are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants.

Contents [hide]
1 Introduction
2 Pollination
2.1 Depopulation
3 Evolution
4 Eusocial and semisocial bees
4.1 ***blebees
4.2 Stingless bees
4.3 Honey bees
4.4 Africanized honey bee
5 Solitary and communal bees
6 Cleptoparasitic bees
7 Nocturnal bees
8 Bee flight
9 Bees and humans
10 Gallery
11 See also
12 References
13 External links

Introduction
Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for larvae.

Bees have a long proboscis (a complex "tongue") that enables them to obtain the nectar from flowers. They have antennae almost universally made up of 13 segments in males and 12 in females, as is typical for the superfamily. Bees all have two pairs of wings, the hind pair being the smaller of the two; in a very few species, one *** or caste has relatively short wings that make flight difficult or impossible, but none is wingless.

Morphology of a female honey beeThe smallest bee is Trigona minima, a stingless bee whose workers are about 2.1 mm (5/64") long. The largest bee in the world is Megachile pluto, a leafcutter bee whose females can attain a length of 39 mm (1.5"). Members of the family Halictidae, or sweat bees, are the most common type of bee in the Northern Hemisphere, though they are small and often mistaken for wasps or flies.

The best-known bee species is the European honey bee, which, as its name suggests, produces honey, as do a few other types of bee. Human management of this species is known as beekeeping or apiculture.

Bees are the favorite meal of Merops apiaster, the bee-eater bird. Other common predators are kingbirds, mockingbirds, bee wolves and dragonflies.

Pollination
See also: List of crop plants pollinated by bees
Bees play an important role in pollinating flowering plants, and are the major type of pollinator in ecosystems that contain flowering plants. Bees either focus on gathering nectar or on gathering pollen depending on demand, especially in social species. Bees gathering nectar may accomplish pollination, but bees that are deliberately gathering pollen are more efficient pollinators. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of which is accomplished by bees, especially the domesticated European honey bee. Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. Monoculture and the massive decline of many bee species (both wild and domesticated) have increasingly caused honey bee keepers to become migratory so that bees can be concentrated in seasonally-varying high-demand areas of pollination.

Osmia ribiflorisMost bees are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge, which aids in the adherence of pollen. Female bees periodically stop foraging and groom themselves to pack the pollen into the scopa, which is on the legs in most bees, and on the ventral abdomen on others, and modified into specialized pollen baskets on the legs of honey bees and their relatives. Many bees are opportunistic foragers, and will gather pollen from a variety of plants, while others are oligolectic, gathering pollen from only one or a few types of plant. A small number of plants produce nutritious floral oils rather than pollen, which are gathered and used by oligolectic bees. One small subgroup of stingless bees, called "vulture bees," is specialized to feed on carrion, and these are the only bees that do not use plant products as food. Pollen and nectar are usually combined together to form a "provision mass", which is often soupy, but can be firm. It is formed into various shapes (typically spheroid), and stored in a small chamber (a "cell"), with the egg deposited on the mass. The cell is typically sealed after the egg is laid, and the adult and larva never interact directly (a system called "mass provisioning").

In New Zealand scientists discovered that three genera of native bees have evolved to open flower buds of the native mistletoe Peraxilla tetrapetala. The buds cannot open themselves but are visited by birds such as the tui and bellbird which twist the top of the ripe bud. That action releases a mechanism which causes the petals to suddenly spring open, giving access to the nectar and pollen. However, when observing the native bees in the Canterbury province in the South Island, the scientists were astonished to see the bees biting the top off the buds, then pushing with their legs, occasionally popping open the buds to allow the bees to harvest the nectar and pollen, and therefore aid in the pollination of the mistletoe which is in decline in New Zealand. Nowhere else in the world have bees demonstrated ability to open explosive bird-adapted flowers. [2]

Visiting flowers can be a dangerous occupation. Many assassin bugs and crab spiders hide in flowers to capture unwary bees. Other bees are lost to birds in flight. Insecticides used on blooming plants kill many bees, both by direct poisoning and by contamination of their food supply. A honey bee queen may lay 2000 eggs per day during spring buildup, but she also must lay 1000 to 1500 eggs per day during the foraging season, mostly to replace daily casualties, most of which are workers dying of old age. Among solitary and primitively social bees, however, lifetime reproduction is among the lowest of all insects, as it is common for females of such species to produce fewer than 25 offspring.

Two honey bees are collecting pollen from Nightblooming cereusThe population value of bees depends partly on the individual efficiency of the bees, but also on the population itself. Thus while ***blebees have been found to be about ten times more efficient pollinators on cucurbits, the total efficiency of a colony of honey bees is much greater due to greater numbers. Likewise during early spring orchard blossoms, ***blebee populations are limited to only a few queens, and thus are not significant pollinators of early fruit.

Depopulation
In 2007, managed populations of European honey bees experienced substantial declines. This has prompted investigations into the phenomenon amidst great concern over the nature and extent of the losses.[3] One aspect of the problem is believed to be "Colony Collapse Disorder" but many of the losses outside the US are attributed to other causes. Pesticides used to treat seeds, such as Clothianidin and Imidacloprid, may also negatively impact honey bee populations.[4] Other species of bees such as mason bees are increasingly cultured and used to meet the agricultural pollination need.[5]

Native pollinators include ***blebees and solitary bees, which often survive in refuges in wild areas away from agricultural spraying, but may still be poisoned in massive spray programs for mosquitoes, gypsy moths, or other insect pests. Although pesticide use remains a concern, the major problem for wild pollinator populations is the loss of the flower-rich habitat on which they depend for food. Throughout the northern hemisphere, the last 70 or so years has seen an intensification of agricultural systems which has decreased the abundance and diversity of wild flowers.

Evolution

Bees vary tremendously in size. Here a tiny halictid bee is gathering pollen, while a ***blebee behind her gathers nectar from a lily.Bees, like ants, are a specialized form of wasp. The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, and therefore predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of prey insects that were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario has also occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the group known as "pollen wasps" also evolved from predatory ancestors. Up until recently the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been Cretotrigona prisca in New Jersey amber and of Cretaceous age, a meliponine. A recently reported bee fossil, of the genus Melittosphex, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees", and dates from the early Cretaceous (~100 mya).[6] Derived features of its morphology ("apomorphies") place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits ("plesiomorphies") of the legs (two mid-tibial spurs, and a slender hind basitarsus), indicative of its transitional status.

The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were pollinated by insects such as beetles, so the syndrome of insect pollination was well established before bees first appeared. The novelty is that bees are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that specifically enhance pollination, and are generally more efficient at the task than any other pollinating insect such as beetles, flies, butterflies and pollen wasps. The appearance of such floral specialists is believed to have driven the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves.

Among living bee groups, the Dasypodaidae are now considered to be the most "primitive", and sister taxon to the remainder of the bees, contrary to earlier hypotheses that the "short-tongued" bee family Colletidae was the basal group of bees; the short, wasp-like mouthparts of colletids are the result of convergent evolution, rather than indicative of a plesiomorphic condition.[1]

Eusocial and semisocial bees

A honey bee swarm
A European honey bee extracts nectar from an Aster flowerBees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities. The most advanced of these are eusocial colonies found among the honey bees, ***blebees, and stingless bees. Sociality, of several different types, is believed to have evolved separately many times within the bees.

In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labor within the group, then they are considered semisocial.

If, in addition to a division of labor, the group consists of a mother and her daughters, then the group is called eusocial. The mother is considered the "queen" and the daughters are "workers". These castes may be purely behavioral alternatives, in which case the system is considered "primitively eusocial" (similar to many paper wasps), and if the castes are morphologically discrete, then the system is "highly eusocial".

There are many more species of primitively eusocial bees than highly eusocial bees, but they have rarely been studied. The biology of most such species is almost completely unknown. The vast majority are in the family Halictidae, or "sweat bees". Colonies are typically small, with a dozen or fewer workers, on average. The only physical difference between queens and workers is average size, if they differ at all. Most species have a single season colony cycle, even in the tropics, and only mated females (future queens, or "gynes") hibernate (called diapause). A few species have long active seasons and attain colony sizes in the hundreds. The orchid bees include a number of primitively eusocial species with similar biology. Certain species of allodapine bees (relatives of carpenter bees) also have primitively eusocial colonies, with unusual levels of interaction between the adult bees and the developing brood. This is "progressive provisioning"; a larva's food is supplied gradually as it develops. This system is also seen in honey bees and some ***blebees.

Highly eusocial bees live in colonies. Each colony has a single queen, many workers and, at certain stages in the colony cycle, drones. When humans provide the nest, it is called a hive. A honey bee hive can contain up to 40,000 bees at their annual peak, which occurs in the spring, but usually have fewer.

***blebee
***blebees
Main article: ***blebee
***blebees (Bombus terrestris, B. pratorum, et al.) are eusocial in a manner quite similar to the eusocial Vespidae such as hornets. The queen initiates a nest on her own (unlike queens of honey bees and stingless bees which start nests via swarms in the company of a large worker force). ***blebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer. Nest architecture is simple, limited by the size of the nest cavity (pre-existing), and colonies are rarely perennial. ***blebee queens sometimes seek winter safety in honey bee hives, where they are sometimes found dead in the spring by beekeepers, presumably stung to death by the honey bees. It is unknown whether any survive winter in such an environment.

***blebees are one of the more important wild pollinators, but have declined significantly in recent decades. In the UK, 2 species have become nationally extinct during the last 75 years while others have been placed on the UK Biodiversity Action Plan as priority species in recognition of the need for conservation action. In 2006 a new charity, the ***blebee Conservation Trust, was established in order to coordinate efforts to conserve remaining populations through conservation and education.

Stingless bees
Main article: Stingless bee
Stingless bees are very diverse in behavior, but all are highly eusocial. They practice mass provisioning, complex nest architecture, and perennial colonies.

A north-American Honey bee extracting nectar
Honey bees
Main article: Honey bee
The true honey bees (genus Apis) have arguably the most complex social behavior among the bees. The European (or Western) honey bee, Apis mellifera, is the best known bee species and one of the best known of all insects.

Africanized honey bee
Main article: Africanized bee
Africanized bees, also called killer bees, are a hybrid strain of Apis mellifera derived from experiments to cross European and African honey bees by Warwick Estevam Kerr. Several queen bees escaped his laboratory in South America and have spread throughout the Americas. Africanized honey bees are more defensive than European honey bees.

Solitary and communal bees
Most other bees, including familiar species of bee such as the Eastern carpenter bee (Xylocopa virginica), alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata), orchard mason bee (Osmia lignaria) and the hornfaced bee (Osmia cornifrons) are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile, and typically inhabits a nest she constructs herself. There are no worker bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor beeswax. They are immune from acarine and Varroa mites (see diseases of the honey bee), but have their own unique parasites, pests and diseases.

A solitary bee, Anthidium florentinum (family Megachilidae), visiting LantanaSolitary bees are important pollinators, and pollen is gathered for provisioning the nest with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency. Some solitary bees have very advanced types of pollen carrying structures on their bodies. A very few species of solitary bees are being increasingly cultured for commercial pollination.

Solitary bees are often oligoleges, in that they only gather pollen from one or a few species/genera of plants (unlike honey bees and ***blebees which are generalists). No known bees are nectar specialists; many oligolectic bees will visit multiple plants for nectar, but there are no bees which visit only one plant for nectar while also gathering pollen from many different sources. Specialist pollinators also include bee species that gather floral oils instead of pollen, and male orchid bees, which gather aromatic compounds from orchids (one of the only cases where male bees are effective pollinators). In a very few cases only one species of bee can effectively pollinate a plant species, and some plants are endangered at least in part because their pollinator is dying off. There is, however, a pronounced tendency for oligolectic bees to be associated with common, widespread plants which are visited by multiple pollinators (e.g., there are some 40 oligoleges associated with creosote bush in the US desert southwest,[7] and a similar pattern is seen in sunflowers, asters, mesquite, etc.)

Solitary bees create nests in hollow reeds or twigs, holes in wood, or, most commonly, in tunnels in the ground. The female typically creates a compartment (a "cell") with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous cells. When the nest is in wood, usually the last (those closer to the entrance) contain eggs that will become males. The adult does not provide care for the brood once the egg is laid, and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males typically emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Providing nest boxes for solitary bees is increasingly popular for gardeners. Solitary bees are either stingless or very unlikely to sting (only in self defense, if ever).

A bee on a cornelWhile solitary females each make individual nests, some species are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, giving the appearance to the casual observer that they are social. Large groups of solitary bee nests are called aggregations, to distinguish them from colonies.

In some species, multiple females share a common nest, but each makes and provisions her own cells independently. This type of group is called "communal" and is not uncommon. The primary advantage appears to be that a nest entrance is easier to defend from predators and parasites when there are multiple females using that same entrance on a regular basis.

Cleptoparasitic bees
Cleptoparasitic bees, commonly called "cuckoo bees" because their behavior is similar to cuckoo birds, occur in several bee families, though the name is technically best applied to the apid subfamily Nomadinae. Females of these bees lack pollen collecting structures (the scopa) and do not construct their own nests. They typically enter the nests of pollen collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and if the female cleptoparasite has not already done so, kills and eats the host larva. In a few cases where the hosts are social species, the cleptoparasite remains in the host nest and lays many eggs, sometimes even killing the host queen and replacing her.

Many cleptoparasitic bees are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts in looks and size, (i.e., the Bombus subgenus Psithyrus, which are parasitic ***blebees that infiltrate nests of species in other subgenera of Bombus). This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle known as "Emery's Rule". Others parasitize bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine apid, one species of which is a cleptoparasite of the dasypodaid genus Hesperapis, while the other species in the same genus attack halictid bees.

Nocturnal bees
Four bee families (Andrenidae, Colletidae, Halictidae, and Apidae) contain some species that are crepuscular (these may be either the vespertine or matinal type). These bees have greatly enlarged ocelli, which are extremely sensitive to light and dark, though incapable of forming images. Many are pollinators of flowers that themselves are crepuscular, such as evening primroses, and some live in desert habitats where daytime temperatures are extremely high.

Bee flight

Bee in mid air flight carrying pollen in pollen basketIn his 1934 French book Le vol des insectes, M. Magnan wrote that he and a Mr. Saint-Lague had applied the equations of air resistance to ***blebees and found that their flight could not be explained by fixed-wing calculations, but that "One shouldn't be surprised that the results of the calculations don't square with reality".[8] This has led to a common misconception that bees "violate aerodynamic theory", but in fact it merely confirms that bees do not engage in fixed-wing flight, and that their flight is explained by other mechanics, such as those used by helicopters.[9]

In 1996 Charlie Ellington at Cambridge University showed that vortices created by many insects’ wings and non-linear effects were a vital source of lift;[10] vortices and non-linear phenomena are notoriously difficult areas of hydrodynamics, which has made for slow progress in theoretical understanding of insect flight.

In 2005 Michael ****inson and his Caltech colleagues studied honey bee flight with the assistance of high-speed cinematography[11] and a giant robotic mock-up of a bee wing.[12] Their analysis revealed sufficient lift was generated by "the unconventional combination of short, choppy wing strokes, a rapid rotation of the wing as it flops over and reverses direction, and a very fast wing-beat frequency". Wing beat frequency normally increases as size decreases, but as the bee's wing beat covers such a small arc, it flaps approximately 230 times per second, faster than a fruitfly (200 times per second) which is 80 times smaller.[13]

In 2008 Barbara Shipman discovered a mathematical connection between the dance of bees and the Flag manifold.[14]

Bees and humans
Bees figure prominently in mythology (See Bee (mythology)) and have been used by political theorists as a model for human society. Journalist Bee Wilson states that the image of a community of honey bees "occurs from ancient to modern times, in Aristotle and Plato; in Virgil and Seneca; in Erasmus and Shakespeare; Tolstoy, as well as by social theorists Bernard Mandeville and Karl Marx."[15]

Despite the honey bee's painful sting and the stereotype of insects as pests, bees are generally held in high regard. This is most likely due to their usefulness as pollinators and as producers of honey, their social nature, and their reputation for diligence. Bees are one of the few insects regularly used on advertisements, being used to illustrate honey and foods made with honey (such as Honey Nut Cheerios).

In North America, yellowjackets and hornets, especially when encountered as flying pests, are often misidentified as bees, despite numerous differences between them - see Characteristics of common wasps and bees. Although a bee sting can be deadly to those with allergies, virtually all bee species are non-aggressive if undisturbed and many cannot sting at all. Humans are often a greater danger to bees, as bees can be affected or even harmed by encounters with toxic chemicals in the environment - see Bees and toxic chemicals.

Gallery
***ble bee and honey bee
European honey bee, Poland
European honey bee on a Sphaeralcea flower. Mesa, Az
European honey bee in a Sphaeralcea flower. Mesa, Az
Sweat bee, Agapostemon virescens (female) on a Coreopsis flower. Madison, Wi

***blebee, Bombus sp. startles Agapostemon virescens. Madison, Wi
European honey bee
European honey bee, Kaunakakai, HI
European honey bees, Lebanon.
European honey bee, Lebanon.

European honey bee collecting pollen from a rose.
European honey bee collecting nectar from small flowers. McKinney, Texas.
Hovering ***blebee at lupine
European honey bee on Apple blossom
***blebee, Montreal

Euglossine bees on orchid Mormodes buccinator (Suriname)
***ble bee targeting apple blossom in Calgary, Alberta
European honey bee
European honey bee on tufted vetch (Vicia cracca) (Quebec, Canada)
Honey bee approaching a milk thistle flower

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Apoidea
Apiology
Bee and wasp stings
Honey bee life cycle
International Union for the Study of Social Insects
Pesticide toxicity to bees
Schmidt Sting Pain Index
Starr sting pain scale

References
^ a b Danforth BN, Sipes S, Fang J, Brady SG (October 2006). "The history of early bee diversification based on five genes plus morphology". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (41): 15118–23. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604033103. PMID 17015826.
^ New Zealand Science Monthly, Native Bees With New Tricks accessdate= 16 June 2009
^ "Honey bees in US facing extinction", Telegraph 14 March 2007
^ German Consumer Protection Agency Bulletin June 9, 2008
^ Mason bee from Everything.About. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
^ Poinar GO, Danforth BN (October 2006). "A fossil bee from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber". Science 314 (5799): 614. doi:10.1126/science.1134103. PMID 17068254.
^ Hurd, P.D. Jr., Linsley, E.G. (1975). "The principal Larrea bees of the southwestern United States.". Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 193: 1–74.
^ Ingram, Jay The Barmaid's Brain, Aurum Press, 2001, pp. 91-92.
^ Cecil Adams (1990-05-04). "Is it aerodynamically impossible for ***blebees to fly?". The Straight Dope. http://www.straightdope.com/co...or-***blebees-to-fly. Retrieved on 2009-03-07.
^ Secrets of bee flight revealed, Phillips, Helen. 28 November 2005. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
^ "www.newscientist.com/data/images/ns/av/dn8382.avi". http://www.newscientist.com/da...ges/ns/av/dn8382.avi.
^ Deciphering the Mystery of Bee Flight Caltech Media Relations. Nov. 29, 2005. Retrieved 2007, 4-7.
^ Douglas L. Altshuler, William B. ****son, Jason T. Vance, Stephen P. Roberts, and Michael H. ****inson (2005). "Short-amplitude high-frequency wing strokes determine the aerodynamics of honeybee flight". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 102: 18213–18218. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506590102. PMID 16330767.
^ "Science Box". Science.box.sk. 2005-05-15. http://science.box.sk/newsread.php?newsid=6321. Retrieved on 2009-03-07.
^ Wilson, Bee (2004). The Hive: The Story Of The Honeybee. London, Great Britain: John Murray (publisher). ISBN 0 7195 6598 7.

External links
All Living Things Images, identification guides, and maps of bees
Bee Genera of the World
Carl Hayden Bee Research Center
Rescuing Australian stingless bees
The first bee of spring
Solitary Bees & Things Solitary Bees in British gardens
Scientists identify the oldest known bee, a 100 million-year-old specimen preserved in amber
Search for North American species at Bugguide here
The ***blebee Conservation Trust - Learn about the UK's ***blebees, recent declines and how you can help
For Hymenoptera: Bees and other related Insects Natural History of Bees, Wasps, and Insects
Bee images on Morphbank, biological image database
****inson Lab
Video: Life Cycle of a Honey Bee
Video: Orchid Bees
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Donkey
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Donkey (disambiguation).
Donkey

Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Perissodactyla

Family: Equidae

Genus: Equus

Subgenus: Asinus

Species: E. africanus

Subspecies: E. africanus asinus

Trinomial name
Equus africanus asinus
Linnaeus, 1758
The donkey or ***, Equus africanus asinus,[1][2] is a domesticated member of the Equidae or horse family, and an odd-toed ungulate. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African Wild ***, E. africanus. Traditionally, the scientific name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. However, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature has ruled in 2003 that if the domestic species and the wild species are considered subspecies of each other, the scientific name of the wild species has priority, even when that subspecies has been described after the domestic subspecies.[2] This means that the proper scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies, and Equus asinus when it is considered a species.

In the western United States, a small donkey is sometimes called a burro (from the Spanish word for the animal).

A male donkey or *** is called a jack, a female a jenny, and offspring less than one year old, a foal (male: colt, female filly).

While different species of the Equidae family can interbreed, offspring are almost always sterile. Nonetheless, horse/donkey hybrids are popular for their durability and vigor. A mule is the offspring of a jack (male donkey) and a mare (female horse). The much rarer successful mating of a male horse and a female donkey produces a hinny.

Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BCE[3], approximately the same time as the horse, and have spread around the world. They continue to fill important roles in many places today and domesticated species are increasing in numbers, but the African wild *** and another relative, the Onager, are endangered. As "beasts of burden" and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for centuries.

Contents [hide]
1 Breeding
2 Characteristics
3 Etymology of the name
4 History
5 Economic use
6 Present status
7 Donkeys in warfare
8 Types of donkeys
8.1 Domestic donkey breeds
8.2 Burro
8.3 Donkey hybrids
8.4 Wild ***, Onager, and Kiang
9 Cultural references
9.1 Religion and myth
9.2 Fable and folklore
9.3 Literature
9.4 Film
9.5 Proverb and idiom
9.6 Advertising
9.7 Insult and vulgarity
9.8 Politics
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links

Breeding
Jennies are pregnant for approximately 12 months, though the gestational period can vary from 11 to almost 14 months.[4] Jennies usually give birth to one foal. Twins are very rare. Only about 1.7 percent of donkey pregnancies result in twins. Both twins survive in only about 14 percent of the cases.

Characteristics

On the island of Hydra, because cars are outlawed, donkeys and mules form virtually the sole method of heavy goods transport.Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management. Most domestic donkeys range from 0.9 to over 1.4 m tall, though the Mammoth Jack breed is taller, and the Andalucian-Cordobesan breed of southern Spain can reach up to 1.6 m high.

Donkeys are adapted to marginal desert lands, and have many traits that are unique to the species as a result. Wild donkeys live separated from each other, unlike tight wild horse and feral horse herds. Donkeys have developed very loud vocalizations, which help keep in contact with other donkeys over the wide spaces of the desert. The best-known call is referred to a "bray," which can be heard for over three kilometers. Donkeys have larger ears than horses. Their longer ears may pick up more distant sounds,[citation needed] and may help cool the donkey's blood. Donkeys in the wild can defend themselves with a powerful kick of their hind legs as well as by biting and striking with their front feet.

Donkeys' tough digestive system is somewhat less prone to colic than that of horses, can break down near-inedible vegetation and extract moisture from food very efficiently. As a rule, donkeys need smaller amounts of feed than horses of comparable height and weight. Because they are easy keepers, if overfed, donkeys are also quite susceptible to developing a condition called laminitis.

Etymology of the name
Until recent times, the synonym *** was commonly used to refer to Equus asinus (e.g., as in jackass, meaning "male donkey"); *** has clear cognates in most other Indo-European languages. However, its homonymity in the United States with the vulgar term *** for "buttocks" probably influenced its gradual replacement by donkey when referring to Equus asinus. The word donkey is an etymologically obscure word. The first written use dates to 1785.[5] No credible cognate for donkey has yet been identified. Hypotheses on its derivation include the following:

Perhaps a diminutive of dun (dull grayish-brown), a typical donkey colour.[5][6]
Perhaps from the name Duncan.[5][7]
Perhaps of imitative origin.[7]

History

Donkey in an Egyptian painting c. 1298-1235 BCEThe ancestors of the modern donkey are the Nubian and Somalian subspecies of African wild ***.[8][9] The African Wild *** was domesticated around 4,000 BCE. The donkey became an important pack animal for people living in the Egyptian and Nubian regions as they can easily carry 20% to 30% of their own body weight and can also be used as a farming and dairy animal. By 1800 BCE, the *** had reached the Middle East, where the trading city of Damascus was referred to as the “City of Asses” in cuneiform texts. Syria produced at least three breeds of donkeys, including a saddle breed with a graceful, easy gait. These were favored by women.[citation needed]

For the Greeks, the donkey was associated with the Syrian god of wine, Dionysus. The Romans also valued the *** and would use it as a sacrificial animal.

Equines had become extinct in the Western Hemisphere at the end of the last Ice Age. However, horses and donkeys were brought back to the Americas by the Conquistadors. In 1495, the *** first appeared in the New World when Christopher Columbus brought four jacks and two jennys. It is from this bloodline that many of the mules which the Conquistadors used while they explored the Americas were produced.[citation needed] Shortly after America became independent, President George Washington imported the first mammoth jack stock into the country. Because the existing Jack donkeys in the New World at the time lacked the size and strength he sought to produce quality work mules, he imported donkeys from Spain and France, some standing over 1.63 m tall. One of the donkeys Washington received from the Marquis de Lafayette, named "Knight of Malta," stood 1.43 m and thus was regarded as a great disappointment. Viewing this donkey as unfit for producing mules, Washington instead bred Knight of Malta to his jennys and, in doing so, created an American line of Mammoth Jacks (a breed name that includes both males and females).

Despite these early appearances of donkeys in America, the donkey did not find widespread distribution in America until it was found useful as a pack animal by miners, particularly the gold prospectors, of the mid-1800s. Miners preferred this animal due to its ability to carry tools, supplies, and ore. Their sociable disposition and adaptation to human companionship allowed many miners to lead their donkeys without ropes. They simply followed behind their owner. As mining became less an occupation of the individual prospector and more of an industrial underground operation, the miners' donkeys lost their jobs, and many were simply turned loose into the American deserts. Descendants of these donkeys, now feral, can still be seen roaming the Southwest today.

*** headcount in 2003By the early 20th century, donkeys began to be used less as working animals and instead kept as pets in the United States and other wealthier nations, while remaining an important work animal in many poorer regions. The donkey as a pet is best portrayed by the appearance of the miniature donkey in 1929. Robert Green imported miniature donkeys to the United States and was a lifetime advocate of the breed. Mr. Green is perhaps best quoted when he said "Miniature Donkeys possess the affectionate nature of a Newfoundland, the resignation of a cow, the durability of a mule, the courage of a tiger, and the intellectual capability only slightly inferior to man's." Standing only 32-40 inches, many families recognized the potential of miniature donkeys as pets and companions for their children.[citation needed]

Although the donkey fell from public notice and became viewed as a comical, stubborn beast which was considered “cute” at best, the donkey has recently regained some popularity in North America as a mount, for pulling wagons, and even as a guard animal. Some standard species are ideal for guarding herds of sheep against predators, since most donkeys have a natural wariness toward coyotes and other canines and will keep them away from the herd.

Economic use

Classic British seaside donkeys in Skegness
Donkey cart being loaded in Mapai, MozambiqueDonkeys have a notorious reputation for stubbornness, but this has been attributed to a much stronger sense of "self preservation" than exhibited by horses.[10] Likely based upon a stronger prey instinct and a weaker connection with man, it is considerably more difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it perceives to be dangerous for whatever reason.

Although formal studies of their behaviour and cognition are rather limited, donkeys appear to be quite intelligent, cautious, friendly, playful, and eager to learn. They are often pastured or stabled with horses and ponies, and are thought to have a calming effect on nervous horses. If a donkey is introduced to a mare and foal, the foal will often turn to the donkey for support after it has been weaned from its mother.[11]

Once a person has earned their confidence they can be willing and companionable partners and very dependable in work[citation needed]. For this reason, they are now commonly[citation needed] kept as pets in countries where their use as beasts of burden has disappeared. They are also popular[citation needed] for giving rides to children in holiday resorts or other leisure contexts.

Present status
There are about 44 million donkeys today. China has the most with 11 million, followed by Pakistan, Ethiopia and Mexico. Some researchers think the real number is higher since many donkeys go uncounted.[12]

The vast majority of donkeys are used for the same types of work that they have been doing for 6000 years. Their most common role is for transport, whether riding, pack transport, or pulling carts. They may also be used for farm tillage, threshing, raising water, milling, and other jobs. Other donkeys are used to sire mules, as companions for horses, to guard sheep, and as pets. A few are milked or raised for meat[12]

The number of donkeys in the world continues to grow, as it has steadily throughout most of history. Some factors that today are contributing to this are increasing human population, progress in economic development and social stability in some poorer nations, conversion of forests to farm and range land, rising prices of motor vehicles and gasoline, and the donkeys' popularity as pets.[12][13]

A 3 week old donkeyIn prosperous countries, the welfare of donkeys both at home and abroad has recently become a concern and a number of sanctuaries for retired and rescued donkeys have been set up. The largest is the Donkey Sanctuary of England, which also supports donkey welfare projects in Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, and Mexico.[14]

Donkeys in warfare
Donkeys have been used throughout history for transportation of supplies, pulling wagons, and, in a few cases, as riding animals. During World War I a British stretcher bearer, John Simpson Kirkpatrick, serving with the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, used a donkey named Duffy to rescue wounded soldiers, carrying them to safety in Gallipoli. There is a statue of John Simpson Kirkpatrick and his donkey in his home town, South Shields.

According to British food writer Matthew Fort, donkeys were until recently used in the Italian Army. The Mountain Fusiliers each had a donkey to carry their gear and in extreme circumstances, the animal could be eaten.[15] In 2006, security forces in Afghanistan prevented a man taking a donkey which he had laden with 30 kg (66lb) of explosives and a number of landmines, which would have been set off by a remote controlled detonator, from entering a town in Zabul Province.[16]

Types of donkeys

Poitou donkeys.
Domestic donkey breeds
An incomplete list of domestic donkey breeds includes the:

Abyssinian Donkey
American Spotted Donkey
Cypriot Donkey
Mammoth Donkey
Mammoth Jack
Miniature Mediterranean Donkey
Poitou Donkey: The Poitou Donkey breed was developed in France for the sole purpose of producing mules. It is a large donkey breed with a very long shaggy coat and no dorsal stripe.
Spotted ***
Standard Donkey

Burro

Adopted wild burroThe Spanish brought donkeys, called "burros" in Spanish, to North America, where they were prized for their hardiness in arid country and became the beast of burden of choice by early prospectors in the Southwest United States. In the western United States the word "burro" is often used interchangeably with the word "donkey" by English speakers. Sometimes the distinction is made with smaller donkeys, descended from Mexican stock, called "burros," while those descended from stock imported directly from Europe are called "donkeys."

Wild burros grazingThe wild burros (or more accurately, feral burros) on the western rangelands descend from animals that ran away, were abandoned, or were freed. Wild burros in the United States were protected by Pub.L. 92-195, the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (see also Kleppe v. New Mexico). These animals, considered to be a living legacy, are periodically at risk when there are severe drought conditions. To reduce herd populations and preserve grazing land, the Bureau of Land Management conducts roundups of burro herds and holds public auctions.

Wild burros can make good pets when treated well and trained properly. They are clever and curious. When trust has been established, they appreciate, and even seek, attention and grooming.

Donkey hybrids
A male donkey (jack) can be crossed with a female horse to produce a mule. A male horse can be crossed with a female donkey (jennet or jenny) to produce a hinny. A female donkey in the UK is called a mare, or jenny.

Horse-donkey hybrids are almost always sterile because horses have 64 chromosomes whereas donkeys have 62, producing offspring with 63 chromosomes. Mules are much more common than hinnies. This is believed to be caused by two factors, the first being proven in cat hybrids, that when the chromosome count of the male is the higher, fertility rates drop (as in the case of stallion x jennet).[citation needed] The lower progesterone production of the jenny may also lead to early embryonic loss. In addition, there are less-scientific reasons: Due to different mating behavior, jacks are often more willing to cover mares than stallions are to breed jennys. Further, mares are usually larger than jennys and thus have more room for the ensuing foal to grow in the womb, resulting in a larger animal at birth. It is commonly believed that mules are more easily handled and also physically stronger than hinnies, making them more desirable for breeders to produce, and it is unquestioned that mules are more common in total number.

The offspring of a zebra-donkey cross is called a zonkey, zebroid, zebrass, or zedonk;[17] zebra mule is an older term, but still used in some regions today. The foregoing terms generally refer to hybrids produced by breeding a male zebra to a female donkey. Zebra hinny, zebret and zebrinny all refer to the cross of a female zebra with a male donkey. Zebrinnies are rarer than zedonkies because female zebras in captivity are most valuable when used to produce full-blooded zebras.[18] There are not enough female zebras breeding in captivity to spare them for hybridizing; there is no such limitation on the number of female donkeys breeding.

For at least the past century, a few donkeys and burros in Mexico have been painted with white stripes to amuse tourists. These are not hybrids.

An animal which may look like a zebra-donkey hybrid because of its distinctly striped hindquarters and hind legs is the okapi, which has no relationship to either of those species. Okapi are most closely related to the giraffe. In addition to the rear stripes, okapi have some striping near the top of their forelegs.

Wild ***, Onager, and Kiang
With domestication of almost all donkeys, few species now exist in the wild. Some of them are the African Wild *** (Equus africanus) and its subspecies Somalian Wild *** (Equus africanus somaliensis). The Asiatic wild *** or Onager, Equus hemionus, and its relative the Kiang, Equus kiang, are closely related wild species.

There were several other, now extinct (sub)species called the Yukon Wild *** (Equus asinus lambei) and the European *** (Equus Hydruntinus) which became extinct during the Neolithic. In the wild the asses can reach top speeds equalling zebras and even most horses.

Cultural references

A North African donkey in a 1917 issue of National Geographic MagazineThe long history of human donkey use has created a rich store of cultural references.

Religion and myth
Greek mythology includes the story of King Midas who judged against Apollo in favor of Pan during a musical contest, and had his ears changed to those of a donkey as punishment.
In both Jewish and Christian traditions, the messiah (Jesus Christ in the later case) was often described as riding on a donkey. As noted, in the context of the Hebrew Bible this connoted wealth and affluence befitting the House of David, as at the time commoners are described as simply going on foot. However, in later times when the aristocracy used horses, depicting the messiah as riding a donkey came to have an opposite connotation, as indicating a simple, sober way of life and avoiding luxury. The same connotation is evident in the description of saints such as Francis of Assisi as riding donkeys.
In contemporary Israel, the term "Messiah's Donkey" (Chamoro Shel Mashiach חמורו של משיח) stands at the center of a controversial religious-political doctrine, attributed to Rabbi Avraham Yitchak Hacohen Cook, under which it was the Heavenly-imposed "task" of secular Zionists to build up a Jewish State, but once the state is established they are fated to give place to the Religious who are ordained to lead the state. The secularists in this analogy are "The Donkey" while the religious who are fated to supplant them are a collective "Messiach". A book on the subject, published in 1998 by the militant secularist Sefi Rechlevsky, aroused a major controversy in the Israeli public opinion.[19]
In Genesis the King of Shechem (the modern Nablus), killed by Jacob's sons, is called "Hamor" - showing that at the time this animal was held in high enough esteem that it was no disrespect for royalty to use its name as their first name. (See Dinah, Shechem, Animal names as first names in Hebrew).
In Numbers 22:22-41 "The Lord opened the mouth of the donkey" (vs. 28) and it speaks to Balaam. In Judges 15:13-17 where the hero Samson slays Philistines with the jawbone of an ***. Additional references can be found in Deuteronomy 22:10, Job 11:12, Proverbs 26:3 and elsewhere.
Muhammad, the prophet of Islam said that dogs and donkeys - if they pass in front of men in prayer - they will void or nullify that prayer.[20] He also said that "when you hear the braying of donkeys, seek Refuge with Allah from Satan for (their braying indicates) that they have seen a devil."[21]
Several were buried in Hor-Aha's tomb
The *** was a symbol of the Greek god Dionysus, particularly in relationship to his companion, Silenus.
The most common Greek word for *** appears roughly 100 times in the Biblical text. In the Gospels, Jesus rides a donkey into Jerusalem (Mark 11:1 in which colt refers to a donkey colt).
There are numerous references to the donkey ("hamor" or "chamor" חמור) in the Hebrew Bible, (Old Testament). It mostly appears reflecting the natural environment of Israel and as an aspect of the agricultural economy. Ownership of many donkeys is a sign of God’s blessing. The Bible often specifies whether a person rode donkeys, since this was used to indicate a person’s wealth in much the same way luxury cars do today. (Horses at that time were used solely for war, powerful kings such as Solomon being the only ones who could afford to import them from Egypt.)
Traditionally, Mary is portrayed as riding a donkey while pregnant. Legend has it that the cross on the donkey’s shoulders comes from the shadow of Christ’s crucifixion, placing the donkey at the foot of the cross. It was once believed that hair cut from this cross and hung from a child’s neck in a bag would prevent fits and convulsions.
In Hindu Mythology a donkey [in sanskrit ] gardbha is vahana [ vehicle] of God Kalaratr .

Fable and folklore
European folklore claims that the tail of a donkey can be used to combat whooping cough or scorpion stings.
In Panchatantra which is a collection of animal fables, where are two stories of donkey 1) The Lion and The Foolish Donkey and 2)The Singing Donkey
In Hitopadesha there is a story of Donkey named The Donkey and the Dog
One of Aesop's fables has an *** dressed in a lion skin who gives himself away by braying.

Literature
Benjamin, the skeptical donkey from George Orwell's Animal Farm.
Any number of donkeys appear in world literary works.

In Don Quixote, Sancho Panza rides a donkey he refers to as "my rucio" or "the rucio", an elegant (and ironic) designation of the texture of the animal's fur.[22]
Eeyore, the gloomy donkey from A.A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh books.
In Pinocchio, naughty boys turn into donkeys and are sold off to hard labour by the evil Coachman. In the book, Pinocchio turns into a donkey for a time.
Platero in Juan Ramon Jimenez's Platero and I
Puzzle in C. S. Lewis's The Last Battle.
In William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, the character Bottom has his head turned into that of a donkey by Puck who was told by Oberon, king of the fairies, to change it.
Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes, is one of Robert Louis Stevenson's earliest published works and is considered a pioneering classic of outdoor literature

Film
The Disney film Fantasia (1940) features a Dionysian character on a donkey.
A donkey is the central character of the film Au hasard Balthazar by Robert Bresson.
Donkey is the name of a fictional donkey (voiced by Eddie Murphy) in the animated movies Shrek, Shrek 2 and Shrek the Third, all from DreamWorks Pictures.

Proverb and idiom
A German proverb claims a donkey can wear a lion suit but its ear will still stick out and give it away.
British colloquial expressions also include "donkey's years" which means for a long time or for many years, "to talk the hind leg off a donkey" means to tire somebody with one's talk.
Speed ***ps are called in the Rioplatense Spanish of Argentina "lomos de burro", that is, "donkey's backs."
Classical Greek expressions about donkeys included: onos pros eortēn = "a donkey at the festival" (gets all the work); onos hyetai = "a donkey is rained on" (i.e. he is unaffected or insensitive), onos pros phatnēn = "a donkey at a feed trough" (like the English expression "in clover").
English proverbs include "better be the head of an *** than the tail of a horse", "if an *** goes a-traveling, he'll not come back a horse", and "better ride on an *** that carries me home than a horse that throws me" (though all these are now obsolete).

Advertising
Budweiser used a donkey in advertising during Super Bowl in 2004, called the Budweiser donkey he trains to be a Budweiser Clydesdale complete with hair extensions.
The Jack and Jenny is a pub name seen in Britain.

Insult and vulgarity
In Arabic, حمار (ḥimar), meaning "donkey", is a derogatory term that refers to someone of very limited intelligence. Another usage is حمار شغل (ḥimar shuġl, literally "work donkey"), roughly equivalent in meaning to workaholic but with a distinct derogatory note and typically implying that the work is routine and non-creative; for example, someone might say, "Give that job to Ali, he's a work donkey anyway and he won't mind."
Because of its connection with ignorance, in modern slang, referring to someone as a dumbass means that they are unintelligent. Many people would find this term vulgar and rude.
In contrast, to refer to someone as a jackass in modern slang provides a connotation of being obnoxious, rude, and thoughtless, with or without the added connotation of stupidity. This usage is also considered vulgar. A less vulgar substitute is donkey itself.
In football, especially in the United Kingdom, a player who is considered unskilful, and to rely overly on his physical attributes to cover up his technical shortcomings, is often dubbed a "donkey."
The term "donkey" in British English is used in horse racing to refer to unsuccessful horses.
The donkey has long been a symbol of ignorance. Examples can be found in Aesop's Fables, Apuleius's The Golden *** (The Metamorphoses of Lucius Apuleius) and Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream.
The term "donkey" is frequently used to refer to unskilled poker players, especially those playing in a predictably loose and unthinking fashion. Compare "patzer" in chess.
The unmodified word *** and the adjectival form asinine have entered common use in the English language as terms used to describe a person who is stubborn, foolish, or disagreeable.

Politics
In an election under a preferential voting system, a vote that simply writes down preferences in the order of the candidates (1 at the top, then 2, and so on) is called a donkey vote.
The "ruc català" or "burro català" (Catalan donkey) is a relatively recent symbol of Catalonia. It was chosen when the need was felt in Catalonia to produce something genuinely Catalan to oppose to the Spanish Osborne bull. The bull was perceived by Catalans as a centralistic symbol, alien to their culture.[23]
The donkey is also the symbol for the Democratic Party of the United States, originating in a cartoon by Thomas Nast of Harper's Weekly (Nast also originated the elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party (United States).

See also
Baudet de Poitou
Burro Racing
Exploding donkey
Hinny
Jenny (donkey) ("Jennet" was a type of medieval horse)
Mule
Ponui donkey
Safe Haven for Donkeys in the Holy Land
Asses' milk

Notes
^ Don E. Wilson & DeeAnn M. Reeder, ed (2005). "Equus asinus". Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/b....asp?s=y&id=14100004.
^ a b International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003). "Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010).". Bull.Zool.Nomencl. 60 (1): 81-84. http://www.iczn.org/BZNMar2003...ions.htm#opinion2027.
^ Rossel S, Marshall F et al. "Domestication of the donkey: Timing, processes, and indicators." PNAS 105(10):3715-3720. March 11, 2008. Abstract
^ ""The Donkey; Gestation and Care of Jennet During Gestation"". Agriculture and Rural Development. Government of Alerta. November 1990. http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$d...l/agdex598#Gestation. Retrieved on 2009-06-09.
^ a b c Grose Dict. Vulg. Tongue, "Donkey or Donkey ****, a he or Jack-***", Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989 (OED Online, subscription, accessed 8th May 2008)
^ Merriam-Webster Unabridged (MWU). (Online subscription-based reference service of Merriam-Webster, based on Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.) Headword donkey. Accessed 2007-09-13.
^ a b Houghton Mifflin (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed ed.). Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 535. ISBN 978-0-395-82517-4. http://www.houghtonmifflinbooks.com/epub/ahd4.shtml.
^ J. Clutton-Brook, J. A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals 1999.
^ Albano Beja-Pereira, "African Origins of the Domestic Donkey," in Science, 2004
^ http://www.abc.net.au/creature...es/facts/donkeys.htm
^ Donkeys
^ a b c Starkey, P. and M. Starkey. 1997. Regional and World trends in Donkey Populations. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA)
^ Blench, R. 2000. The History and Spread of Donkeys in Africa. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA)
^ The Donkey Sanctuary (DS). 2006. Website. (accessed December 2, 2006).
^ Fort, Matthew (2005-06-20). Eating Up Italy: Voyages on a Vespa. HarperPerennial. ISBN 0007214812.
^ "Afghan Police Stop Bombing Attack From Explosives-laden Donkey". Fox News. 2006-06-08. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,198637,00.html. Retrieved on 2007-11-04.
^ American Donkey and Mule Society: Zebra Hybrids
^ All About Zebra Hybrids
^ [1]
^ Al-Nawawi, Sahih Muslim, 3-4:450-1; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 5:194, 197, 202, 208; Abu Bakr Ibn al-‘Arabi, ‘Aridat al-Ahwadhi bi Sharh Sahih al-Tirmidhi (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, n.d.), 1:133. All reported in El-Fadl.
^ Sahih al-Bukhari 4:54:522
^ The word "rucio" (in Spanish).
^ Ruc català - (Catalan donkey)

References
Blench, R. 2000. The History and Spread of Donkeys in Africa. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA)
Clutton-Brook, J. 1999. A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954
The Donkey Sanctuary (DS). 2006. Website. [2] (accessed December 2, 2006).
Huffman, B. 2006. The Ultimate Ungulate Page: Equus asinus. (accessed December 2, 2006).
International Museum of the Horse (IMH). 1998. Donkey. (accessed December 3, 2006).
Nowak, R. M., and J. L. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore, Maryland, USA : The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801825253
Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. Breeds of Livestock. (accessed December 3, 2006).
Starkey, P. and M. Starkey. 1997. Regional and World trends in Donkey Populations. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) [3]

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Equus asinus
Breeds of livestock - Poitou Donkey
National Wild Horse and Burro Program
[show]v • d • eExtant Perissodactyla (Odd-toed ungulates) species by suborder

Kingdom Animalia · Phylum Chordata · Class Mammalia · Infraclass Eutheria · Superorder Laurasiatheria

Hippomorpha

Equidae
(Horse family) Equus
(including Zebras) Subgenus Equus: Wild horse (E. ferus) · Domestic Horse (E. caballus)
Subgenus Asinus: African Wild *** (E. africanus) · Donkey (E. asinus) · Onager (E. hemionus) · Kiang (E. kiang)
Subgenus Dolichohippus: Grévy's Zebra (E. grevyi)
Subgenus Hippotigris: Plains Zebra (E. quagga) · Mountain Zebra (E. zebra)

Ceratomorpha

Rhinocerotidae
(Rhinoceros) Rhinoceros Indian Rhinoceros (R. unicornis) · Javan Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus)

Dicerorhinus Sumatran Rhinoceros (D. sumatrensis)

Ceratotherium White Rhinoceros (C. simum)

Diceros Black Rhinoceros (D. bicornis)

Tapiridae
(Tapirs) Tapirus Baird's Tapir (T. bairdii) · Malayan Tapir (T. indicus) · Mountain Tapir (T. pinchaque) · Black Lowland Tapir (T. pygmaeus) · South American Tapir (T. terrestris)

Category

[show]v • d • eSpecies and hybrids of genus Equus, both extant and extinct

Species Equus africanus · (Equus africanus asinus) · Equus burchelli · Equus complicatus · Equus conversidens · Equus crinidens · Equus cumminsii · Equus excelsus · Equus ferus (Equus ferus ferus, Equus ferus przewalskii · Equus ferus caballus) · Equus francisci · Equus fraternus · Equus giganteus · Equus grevyi · Equus hemionus · Equus hydruntinus · Equus kiang · Equus lambei · Equus namadicus · Equus niobrarensis · Equus occidentalis · Equus pacificus · Equus parastylidens · Equus pectinatus · Equus quagga (Equus quagga quagga) · Equus scotti · Equus simplicidens · Equus sivalensis · Equus stenonis · Equus yunnanensis · Equus zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae, Equus zebra zebra)

Hybrids Hinny · Mule · Zebroid · Zonkey · Zony · Zorse

Evolution Equidae · Equus · Evolution of the horse · Wild horse · Domestication of the horse

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey"
Categories: Domesticated animals | Donkeys | Catalan symbols | Pet mammals
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Monkey
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Monkey (disambiguation).
Monkeys

A young male White-fronted Capuchin (Cebus albifrons)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Primates

Suborder: Haplorrhini

Infraorder: Simiiformes
in part

Approximate worldwide distribution of monkeys. Old World monkeys in red, New World in orange.
Families
Cebidae
Aotidae
Pitheciidae
Atelidae
Cercopithecidae

A monkey is any cercopithecoid (Old World monkey) or platyrrhine (New World monkey) primate. All primates that are not prosimians (lemurs and tarsiers) or apes are monkeys. The 264 known extant monkey species represent two of the three groupings of simian primates (the third group being the 21 species of apes). Monkeys are usually smaller and/or longer-tailed than apes.

The New World monkeys are classified within the parvorder Platyrrhini, whereas the Old World monkeys (superfamily Cercopithecoidea) form part of the parvorder Catarrhini, which also includes the apes. Thus, scientifically speaking, monkeys are paraphyletic (not a single coherent group), and Old World monkeys are actually more closely related to the apes than they are to the New World monkeys.

Due to its size (up to 1 m/3 ft) the Mandrill is often thought to be an ape, but it is actually an Old World monkey. Also, a few monkey species have the word "ape" in their common name.

Contents [hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Etymology
3 Classification
4 Relationship with humans
4.1 As service animals for the disabled
4.2 In experiments
4.2.1 In space
4.3 As food
4.4 Literature
4.5 Religion and worship
4.6 Entertainment
4.7 Zodiac
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

Characteristics

Bonnet Macaque in Nelliampathi mountains, Kerala, South IndiaMonkeys range in size from the Pygmy Marmoset, at 140 to 160 millimetres (5–6 in) long (plus tail) and 120 to 140 grams (4–5 oz) in weight, to the male Mandrill, almost 1 metre (3.3 ft) long and weighing 35 kilograms (77 lb). Some are arboreal (living in trees) while others live on the savanna; diets differ among the various species but may contain any of the following: fruit, leaves, seeds, nuts, flowers, eggs, and small animals (including insects and spiders).

Some characteristics are shared among the groups; most New World monkeys have prehensile tails while Old World monkeys have non-prehensile tails or no visible tail at all. Some have trichromatic color vision like that of humans, others are dichromats or monochromats. Although both the New and Old World monkeys, like the apes, have forward facing eyes, the faces of Old World and New World monkeys look very different, though again, each group shares some features such as the types of noses, cheeks, and rumps.

Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "monkey" may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Fox fable, published circa 1580. In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape. The word Moneke may have been derived from the Italian monna, which means "a female ape". The name Moneke likely persisted over time due to the popularity of Reynard the Fox.

A group of monkeys may be referred to as a mission or a tribe.

Classification

Common Squirrel Monkey
Crab-eating Macaque in ThailandThe following list shows where the various monkey families (bolded) are placed in the Primate classification.

ORDER PRIMATES
Suborder Strepsirrhini: non-tarsier prosimians
Suborder Haplorrhini: tarsiers, monkeys and apes
Infraorder Tarsiiformes
Family Tarsiidae: tarsiers
Infraorder Simiiformes: simians
Parvorder Platyrrhini: New World monkeys
Family Cebidae: marmosets, tamarins, capuchins, and squirrel monkeys (56 species)
Family Aotidae: night monkeys, owl monkeys, douroucoulis (8 species)
Family Pitheciidae: titis, sakis and uakaris (41 species)
Family Atelidae: howler, spider and woolly monkeys (24 species)
Parvorder Catarrhini
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea
Family Cercopithecidae: Old World monkeys (135 species)
Superfamily Hominoidea: apes
Family Hylobatidae: gibbons ("lesser apes") (13 species)
Family Hominidae: great apes including humans (7 species)
Note that the smallest grouping that contains them all is the Simiiformes, the simians, which also contains the apes. Calling apes "monkeys" is considered scientifically incorrect as apes are distinctly defined as different from monkeys.[1] Apes were included in earlier use of the term, predating modern classifications.[2] Including some or all apes (other than humans) remained the common usage in the early 20th century[3] and is still in colloquial use.[4] Calling either a simian is correct.

Relationship with humans
The many species of monkey have varied relationships with humans. Some are kept as pets, others used as model organisms in laboratories or in space missions. They may be killed in monkey drives when they threatened agriculture, or serve as service animals for the disabled.

In religion and culture, the monkey often represents quick-wittedness and mischief.

As service animals for the disabled
Some organizations train capuchin monkeys as monkey helpers to assist quadriplegics and other people with severe spinal cord injuries or mobility impairments. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with a quadriplegic. Around the house, the monkeys help out by doing tasks including microwaving food, washing the quadriplegic's face, and opening drink bottles.

In experiments

Covance primate-testing lab, Vienna, Virginia, 2004–05[5]Macaques, especially the Rhesus Macaque, and African Green Monkeys are widely used in animal testing facilities, either wild-caught or purpose-bred.[6] They are used primarily because of their relative ease of handling, their fast reproductive cycle (compared to apes), and their psychological and physical similarity to humans. In the United States, around 50,000 non-human primates, most of them monkeys, have been used in experiments every year since 1973;[7] 10,000 monkeys were used in the European Union in 2004.

Sam, a rhesus macaque, was flown to a height of 55 miles (89 km) by NASA in 1959.The use of monkeys in laboratories is controversial. Some claim[who?] that their use is cruel and produces little information of value, and there have been many protests, vandalism to testing facilities, and threats to workers. Others claim[who?] that it has led to many important medical breakthroughs such as the rabies vaccine, understanding of human reproduction and basic knowledge about brain function, and that the prevention of harm to humans should be a higher priority than the possible harm done to monkeys. The topic has become a popular cause for animal rights and animal welfare groups.

In space
A number of countries have used monkeys as part of their space exploration programmes, including the United States and France. The first monkey in space was Albert II who flew in the US-launched V-2 rocket in June 14, 1949.

As food
Monkey brains are eaten as a delicacy in South Asia, China, and Africa.[8] In traditional Islamic dietary laws, monkeys are forbidden to be eaten. However, monkeys are sometimes eaten in parts of Africa, where they can be sold as "bushmeat".[9]

Literature
Sun Wukong (the "Monkey King"), a character who figures prominently in Chinese mythology, is the main protagonist in the classic comic Chinese novel Journey to the West.

Monkeys are prevalent in numerous books, television programs, and movies. The television series Monkey and the literary characters Monsieur Eek and Curious George are all examples.

Simian statue at a Buddhist shrine in Tokyo, JapanHowever, pop culture often incorrectly labels apes, particularly chimpanzees, gibbons, and gorillas, as monkeys. Terry Pratchett makes use of the distinction in his Discworld novels, in which the Librarian of the Unseen University is an orangutan who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey.

The Winged monkeys are prominent characters in The Wizard of Oz.

Religion and worship
Hanuman, a prominent divine entity in Hinduism, is a monkey-like humanoid. He may bestow longevity.

In Buddhism, the monkey is an early incarnation of Buddha but may also represent trickery and ugliness. The Chinese Buddhist "mind monkey" metaphor refers to the unsettled, restless state of human mind. Monkey is also one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolizing greed, with the tiger representing anger and the deer lovesickness.

The Mizaru or three wise monkeys are revered in Japanese folklore.[10]

The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature.[11] They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted monkeys in their art.[12]

Entertainment
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page.

In the Tamil country, monkeys were used for entertainment. The owner trains monkeys to perform gymnastics in public. Even today, it could be practiced in remote villages.[citation needed]

Zodiac
The Monkey is the ninth in the twelve-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The next time that the monkey will appear as the zodiac sign will be in the year 2016.

See also
Mammals portal
List of monkeys

References
^ [1]
^ Definition of Monkey in Merriam Webster's Online Dictionary
^ Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911: Monkey
^ Webster's New World College Dictionary, 4th Ed: Monkey
^ "Covance Cruelty", People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals.
^ "The supply and use of primates in the EU", European Biomedical Research Association.
^ [2]PDF (136 KiB)[dead link]
^ Some bravery as a side dish
^ http://www.sciencedaily.com/re.../04/020403025234.htm
^ Cooper, JC (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals. London: Aquarian Press. pp. 161–63. ISBN 1-85538-118-4.
^ Benson, Elizabeth, The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York, NY: Praeger Press. 1972
^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997.

External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: monkeys
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Monkey
"The Impossible Housing and Handling Conditions of Monkeys in Research Laboratories", by Viktor Reinhardt, International Primate Protection League, August 2001
The Problem with Pet Monkeys: Reasons Monkeys Do Not Make Good Pets, an article by veterinarian Lianne McLeod on About.com
Helping Hands: Monkey helpers for the disabled, a U.S. national non-profit organization based in Boston Massachusetts that places specially trained capuchin monkeys with people who are paralyzed or who live with other severe mobility impairments
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey"
Categories: Monkeys | Pet mammals
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Ant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Ant (disambiguation).
Ants
Fossil range: 130–0 Ma PreЄЄOSDCPTJKPgNCretaceous - Recent

Meat eater ant feeding on honey
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Suborder: Apocrita

Superfamily: Vespoidea

Family: Formicidae
Latreille, 1809

Subfamilies
Aenictogitoninae
Agroecomyrmecinae
Amblyoponinae (incl. "Apomyrminae")
Aneuretinae
Brachymyrmex
Cerapachyinae
Dolichoderinae
Ecitoninae (incl. "Dorylinae" and "Aenictinae")
Ectatomminae
Formicinae
Heteroponerinae
Leptanillinae
Leptanilloidinae
Martialinae
Myrmeciinae (incl. "Nothomyrmeciinae")
Myrmicinae
Paraponerinae
Ponerinae
Proceratiinae
Pseudomyrmecinae
Cladogram of ant subfamilies[show]

Martialinae

Leptanillinae

Amblyoponinae

Paraponerinae

Agroecomyrmecinae

Ponerinae

Proceratiinae

Ecitoninae

Aenictinae

Dorylini

Aenictogitoninae

Cerapachyinae*

Leptanilloidinae

Dolichoderinae

Aneuretinae

Pseudomyrmecinae

Myrmeciinae

Ectatomminae

Heteroponerinae

Myrmicinae

Formicinae

A phylogeny of the extant ant subfamilies.[1][2]
*Cerapachyinae is paraphyletic

Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae (pronounced /fɔrˈmɪsəˌdiː/), and along with the related wasps and bees, they belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. Today, more than 12,000 species are classified with upper estimates of about 14,000 species.[3][4] They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and a distinctive node-like structure that forms a slender waist.

Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies which may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. These larger colonies consist mostly of sterile wingless females forming castes of "workers", "soldiers", or other specialised groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called "drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens". The colonies are sometimes described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony.[5]

Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and certain remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems, and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass.[6] Their success has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships.[7]

Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems.[8] These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study.

Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication and rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents.[9] However, their ability to exploit resources brings ants into conflict with humans, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant, are regarded as invasive species, since they have established themselves in new areas where they have been accidentally introduced.[10]

Contents [hide]
1 Taxonomy and evolution
1.1 Etymology
2 Distribution and diversity
3 Morphology
3.1 Polymorphism
4 Development and reproduction
5 Behaviour and ecology
5.1 Communication
5.2 Defence
5.3 Learning
5.4 Nest construction
5.5 Food cultivation
5.6 Navigation
5.7 Locomotion
5.8 Cooperation and competition
5.9 Relationships with other organisms
6 Relationship with humans
6.1 As food
6.2 As pests
6.3 In science and technology
6.4 In culture
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links

Taxonomy and evolution

Ants fossilised in Baltic amberThe family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the vespoid wasps. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that ants arose in the mid-Cretaceous period about 110 to 130 million years ago. After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago they diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago.[11][12][13] In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma freyi) that lived in the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to more than 80 million years ago, has features of both ants and wasps.[14] Sphecomyrma was probably a ground forager but some suggest on the basis of groups such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae that primitive ants were likely to have been predators under the soil surface.[2]

Vespoidea
Sierolomorphidae

Tiphiidae

Sapygidae

Mutillidae

Pompilidae

Rhopalosomatidae

Formicidae

Vespidae

Scoliidae

Phylogenetic position of the Formicidae.[15]
During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian super-continent (the northern hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to other insects, representing about 1% of the insect population. Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Tertiary period. By the Oligocene and Miocene ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, approximately one in ten genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).[11][16]

Termites, though sometimes called white ants, are not ants and belong to the order Isoptera. Termites are actually more closely related to cockroaches and mantids. The fact that ants and termites are both eusocial came about by convergent evolution. Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.[17][18]

Etymology
The word ant is derived from ante of Middle English which is derived from æmette of Old English and is related to the Old High German āmeiza, hence the modern German Ameise. All of these words come from West Germanic *amaitjo, and the original meaning of the word was "the biter" (from Proto-Germanic *ai-, "off, away" + *mait- "cut"). [19] [20] The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin formīca ("ant")[21] from which the words in other Romance languages such as the Portuguese formiga, Spanish hormiga, Romanian furnică and French fourmi are derived.

Distribution and diversity
Region Number of
species [22]
Neotropics 2162
Nearctic 580
Europe 180
Africa 2500
Asia 2080
Melanesia 275
Australia 985
Polynesia 42
Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica and only a few large islands such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species.[23][24] Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches, and are able to exploit a wide range of food resources either as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers. Most species are omnivorous generalists but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance may be measured by their biomass, and estimates in different environments suggest that they contribute 15–20% (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of the total terrestrial animal biomass, which exceeds that of the vertebrates.[6]

Ants range in size from 0.75 to 52 millimetres (0.030–2.0 in).[25][26] Their colours vary; most are red or black, green is less common, and some tropical species have a metallic lustre. More than 12,000 species are currently known (with upper estimates of about 14,000), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species.[27] The relative ease with which ants can be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies.[28][29]

Morphology
Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having elbowed antennae, metapleural glands, and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole. The head, mesosoma and metasoma or gaster are the three distinct body segments. The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole can be formed by one or two nodes (the second alone, or the second and third abdominal segments).[30]

Bull ant showing the powerful mandibles and the relatively large compound eyes that provide excellent visionLike other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases like carbon dioxide pass through their exoskeleton through tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the "dorsal aorta") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph towards the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.[31]

Diagram of a worker ant (Pachycondyla verenae)An ant's head contains many sensory organs. Like most insects, ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together. Ants' eyes are good for acute movement detection but do not give a high resolution. They also have three small ocelli (simple eyes) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarisation.[32] Compared to vertebrates, most ants have poor-to-mediocre eyesight and a few subterranean species are completely blind. Some ants such as Australia's bulldog ant, however, have exceptional vision. Two antennae ("feelers") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents and vibrations; they are also used to transmit and receive signals through touch. The head has two strong jaws, the mandibles, used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defence.[31] In some species a small pocket (infrabuccal chamber) inside the mouth stores food, so it can be passed to other ants or their larvae.[33]

All six legs are attached to the mesosoma ("thorax"). A hooked claw at the end of each leg helps ants to climb and hang onto surfaces. Most queens and male ants have wings; queens shed the wings after the nuptial flight, leaving visible stubs, a distinguishing feature of queens. However, wingless queens (ergatoids) and males occur in a few species.[31]

The metasoma (the "abdomen") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae) and excretory systems. Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests.[31]

Polymorphism

Seven Leafcutter ant workers of various castes (left) and two Queens (right)In the colonies of a few ant species, there are physical castes—workers in distinct size-classes, called minor, median, and major workers. Often the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads, and correspondingly stronger mandibles. Such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting, although they are still workers and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species the median workers are absent, creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors.[34] Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution.[35] [36] Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers. The smallest and largest workers in Pheidologeton diversus show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry-weights.[37] Workers cannot mate; however, because of the haplodiploid ***-determination system in ants, workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile haploid males. The role of workers may change with their age and in some species, such as honeypot ants, young workers are fed until their gasters are distended, and act as living food storage vessels. These food storage workers are called repletes.[38] This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers was initially thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones which led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp.[39] These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens.[40] The Australian jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula), has only a single pair of chromosomes (males have just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects.[41][42]

Development and reproduction

Meat eater ant nest during swarmingThe life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female (diploid); if not, it will be male (haploid). Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larval stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the "social stomach", among themselves. Larvae may also be provided with solid food such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey and seeds brought back by foraging workers and may even be transported directly to captured prey in some species. The larvae grow through a series of moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa.[43] The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers (when they exist), is determined by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around the various brood chambers within the colony.[44]

A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. It then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants that are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes.[45][46]

Fertilised meat eater ant queen beginning to dig a new colonyMost ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens while others can exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "gamergates" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right.[47] The winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae along with the breeding females (although some species, like army ants, have wingless queens), and do nothing in life except eat and mate. During the short breeding period, the reproductives, excluding the colony queen, are carried outside where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterwards. Females of some species mate with multiple males. Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females store the sperm they obtain during their nuptial flight to selectively fertilise future eggs. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how new colonies start in most species. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site,[48] a process akin to swarming in honeybees.

Ants mating.A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis[49] and one species, Mycocepurus smithii is known to be all-female.[50]

Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, and survive only a few weeks.[51] Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times longer than solitary insects of a similar size.[52]

Ants are active all year long in the tropics but, in cooler regions, survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.[53]

Behaviour and ecology

Communication

Weaver ants collaborating to dismember a red ant (the two at the extremities are pulling the red ant, while the middle one cuts the red ant until it snaps)Ants communicate with each other using pheromones.[54] These chemical signals are more developed in ants than in other hymenopteran groups. Like other insects, ants perceive smells with their long, thin and mobile antennae. The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents. Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that can be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually finding the best path.[55]

Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from further away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves.[56] Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, ******, sternum and hind tibia.[52] Pheromones are also exchanged mixed with food and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony.[57] This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to.[58] In ant species with queen castes, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone.[59]

Some ants produce sounds by stridulation, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species.[60][61]

Defence

A weaver ant in fighting position, mandibles wide openAnts attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging, often injecting or spraying chemicals like formic acid. Bullet ants (Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index. The sting of Jack jumper ants can be fatal,[62] and an antivenin has been developed.[63] Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a poison sac containing piperidine alkaloids.[64] Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people.[65]

Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom.[66] One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between 126 and 230 km/h (78 - 143 mph), with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backwards to escape a threat.[66] Before the strike, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap-jaws are also seen in the following genera: Anochetus, Orectognathus, and Strumigenys,[66] plus some members of the Dacetini tribe[67], which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution.

Ant mound holes prevent water from entering the nest during rain.In addition to defence against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory, the disposal of dead nest-mates.[68] Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released by dead ants that triggers undertaking behaviour in Atta mexicana.[69]

Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and over-heating by elaborate nest architecture.[70][71] Workers of Cataulacus muticus, an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside.[72]

Learning
Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed. A knowledgeable forager of Temnothorax albipennis leads a naive nest-mate to newly discovered food by the excruciatingly slow process of tandem running. The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner with the leader slowing down when the follower lags, and speeding up when the follower gets too close.[73]

Controlled experiments with colonies of Cerapachys biroi suggest that individuals may choose nest roles based on their previous experience. An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled. One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed. As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out less and less. A month later, the successful foragers continued in their role while the others moved to specialise in brood care.[74]

Nest construction
Main article: Ant colony

Leaf nest of weaver ants, Pamalican, PhilippinesComplex nests are built by many ants, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests can be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter,[48] and ants carefully select their nest sites; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats.[75]

The army ants of South America and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together.[76]

Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis.[77]

Food cultivation
Main article: Ant-fungus mutualism

Myrmecocystus (Honeypot) ants store food to prevent colony famine.Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers and indirect herbivores,[13] but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition. Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Workers specialise in tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria that may harm the fungi.[78]

Navigation
Foraging ants travel distances of up to 200 metres (700 ft) from their nest[79] and usually find their way back using scent trails. Some ants forage at night. Day foraging ants in hot and arid regions face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants (Cataglyphis fortis) use visual landmarks in combination with other cues to navigate.[80] In the absence of visual landmarks, the closely related Sahara desert ant (Cataglyphis bicolor) navigates by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled, like an internal pedometer that counts how many steps they take in each direction. They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest.[81] Several species of ants are able to use the Earth's magnetic field.[82] Ants' compound eyes have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun, which is used to determine direction.[83][84] These polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum.[85]

Locomotion

Harpegnathos saltator, a jumping antWorker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator) is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs.[86] There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus; this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to control the direction of their descent while falling.[87]

Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands.[88] Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they breathe in trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests.[89]

Cooperation and competition

These meat eater ants are feeding on honey. Social ants cooperate and collectively gather food.Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal (primitive) of ants. Like virtually all ants they are eusocial, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using its large eyes instead of its chemical senses to find prey.[90][91]

Some species (such as Tetramorium caespitum) attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies. Others are less expansionist but just as aggressive; they invade colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers/slaves. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive.[92] Captured workers of the enslaved species Temnothorax have evolved a counter strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making Protomognathus americanus, but sparing the males (who don't take part in slave-raiding as adults).[93]

Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked.[94]

Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species like Strumigenys xenos are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead rely on the food gathered by their Strumigenys perplexa hosts.[95][96] This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host. A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant. A parasitic queen can enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest.[97]

A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with the reproductives apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process where a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males that are clones of the father.[98]

Relationships with other organisms

The spider Myrmarachne plataleoides (here a female) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators.Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, either preying on ants, their larvae and eggs, consuming the ants' food stores, or avoiding predators. These inquilines can bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Wasmannian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines.[99][100]

An ant collects honeydew from an aphid.Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect.[101] In some cases the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to the ants' tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids between feeding locations. On migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs can become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies.[102]

Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants.[103] Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ants' nest where it feeds on the ant larvae.[104]

Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus genera of the Agaricaceae family. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey.[105]

Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees (Duroia hirsuta). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees.[106] Some trees have extrafloral nectaries that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from herbivorous insects.[107] Species like the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the symbiotic ants.[108] In return, the ants obtain food from protein-lipid Beltian bodies. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants.

Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants.[109] Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread particularly in Africa and Australia.[110] Some plants in fire-prone grassland systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal. Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food.[111] A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch.[112]

A Meat ant tending a common leafhopper nymphAnts prey on and obtain food from a number of social insects including other ants. Some species specialise in preying on termites (Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants.[79] Some termites form associations with certain ant species to keep away other predatory ant species.[113] The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellant chemical.[114] It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Stingless bees (Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defences against ants.[79]

Flies in the Old World genus Bengalia (Calliphoridae) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites, snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants.[115] Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea) live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are cared for by the ants.[115]

Fungi in the genera Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps infect ants, causing them to climb up plants and sink their mandibles into plant tissue. The fungus kills the ant, grows on its remains, and produces a fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behaviour of the ant to help disperse its spores[116] in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus.[117] Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates.[118] A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) that infects canopy ants (Cephalotes atratus) causes the black coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant, and makes them carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits such as Hyeronima alchorneoides and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young leading to the further spread of the nematode.[119]

South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants.[120] Several South American antbirds follow army ants to feed on the insects that are flushed from cover by the foraging ants.[121] This behaviour was once considered mutualistic, but later studies show that it is instead kleptoparasitic, with the birds stealing prey.[122] Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that is as yet not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may remove ectoparasites. Anteaters, pangolins and several marsupial species in Australia have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been found to feed on ants, and about 12%, 16%, and 4% of their faecal volume in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants.[123]

Relationship with humans

Weaver ants are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China.Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control.[9] On the other hand, ants can become nuisances when they invade buildings, or cause economic losses.

In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound.[124][125][126]

Some ants of the family Ponerinae have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include Paraponera clavata (Tocandira) and Dinoponera spp. (false Tocandiras) of South America[127] and the Myrmecia ants of Australia.[128]

In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), which are small seeds used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them en masse. Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds can be collected from one ant-heap.[129][130]

As food
Main article: Entomophagy

Ant larvae on sale in Isaan, ThailandAnts and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are the basis for the dish in Mexico known as escamoles. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as USD 40 per pound (USD 90/kg) because they are seasonal and hard to find. In the Colombian department of Santander, hormigas culonas (roughly interpreted as "large-bottomed ants") Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten.[131]

In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry.[132] Weaver ant eggs and larvae as well as the ants themselves may be used in a Thai salad, yum (ยำ), in a dish called yum khai mod daeng (ยำไข่มดแดง) or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the Naturalist in Australia wrote "Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, "these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates".[133]

In his First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickly acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the replete workers, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (Myrmecocystus).[133]

As pests

The tiny pharaoh ant is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper.Some ant species are considered pests,[10] and because of the adaptive nature of ant colonies, eliminating the entire colony is nearly impossible. Pest management is therefore a matter of controlling local populations, instead of eliminating an entire colony, and most attempts at control are temporary solutions.

Ants classified as pests include the pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, sugar ants, the Pharaoh ant, carpenter ants, Argentine ant, odorous house ants, red imported fire ant and European fire ant. Populations are controlled using insecticide baits, either in granule or liquid formulations. Bait is gathered by the ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Boric acid and borax are often used as insecticides that are relatively safe for humans. Bait may be broadcast over a large area to control species like the red fire ant that occupy large areas. Nests of red fire ants may be destroyed by following the ants' trails back to the nest and then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. This works in about 60% of the mounds and requires about 14 litres (3 imp gal; 4 US gal) per mound.[134]

In science and technology
See also: Myrmecology, Biomimetics, and Ant colony optimisation
Myrmecologists study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions. Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms. Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbok in 1881.[135] Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology, sociobiology and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies.[136] Ant colonies can be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria, specially constructed glass framed enclosures.[137] Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with colours.[138]

The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage and networking algorithms.[8]

In culture

Aesop's ants: picture by Milo Winter, 1888–1956Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort. They are also mentioned in religious texts.[139][140] In the Book of Proverbs in the Bible, ants are held up as a good example for humans for their hard work and cooperation. Aesop did the same in his fable The Ant and the Grasshopper. In the Quran, Sulayman(Arabic: سليمان‎) is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army.[Qur'an 27:18][141] In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief.[142] Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in initiation ceremonies as a test of endurance.[143][144]

Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his A Tramp Abroad.[145] Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are Robert Frost in his poem "Departmental" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King. The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's Les Fourmis science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour is described using contemporary scientific knowledge. In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3D animated movies featuring ants have been produced include Antz, A Bug's Life, The Ant Bully, The Ant and the Aardvark, Atom Ant, and there is a comic book superhero called Ant-Man.

The Chinese character for ant (蟻/蚁) is a combination of logograms that may be interpreted as "insect (虫) which behaves properly (義/义)".[146] The Japanese character for ant (蟻) also shares this etymology.[147]

From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular educational children's toys in the United States. Later versions use transparent gel instead of soil allowing greater visibility.[148] In the early 1990s, the video game SimAnt, which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for "Best Simulation Program".[149]

Ants are also quite popular inspiration for many science-fiction creatures, such as the Formics of Ender's Game, the Bugs of Starship Troopers, the giant ants in the film Them!, and ants mutated into super intelligence in Phase IV. In strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the Master of Orion series of games or the ChCht in Deadlock II. These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies.[150]

See also
Ant stings
Task allocation and partitioning of social insects
International Union for the Study of Social Insects

Footnotes
^ Ward, Philip S (2007). "Phylogeny, classification, and species-level taxonomy of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)" (PDF). Zootaxa 1668: 549–563. http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p563.pdf.
^ a b Rabeling C, Brown JM & Verhaagh M (2008). "Newly discovered sister lineage sheds light on early ant evolution". PNAS 105: 14913. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806187105. PMID 18794530.
^ Wade, Nicholas (15 July 2008). "Taking a Cue From Ants on Evolution of Humans". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/15/science/15wils.html. Retrieved on 15 July 2008.
^ "Hymenoptera name server. Formicidae species count.". Ohio State University. http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state....the_taxon=Formicidae.
^ Oster GF, Wilson EO (1978). Caste and ecology in the social insects. Princeton University

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Donald Duck
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Donald Duck

First appearance The Wise Little Hen (Silly Symphonies), 1934[1]
Created by **** Lundy
Voiced by Clarence Nash (1934–1985)
Tony Anselmo (1985–present)
Aliases Paperinik
Donald Duck is a cartoon character from The Walt Disney Company. Donald is a white anthropomorphic duck with a yellow-orange bill, legs, and feet. He usually wears a sailor shirt, cap, and a red or black bow tie, but no trousers (except when he goes swimming). Donald's most famous personality trait is his easily provoked and explosive temper.

According to the Disney canon, particularly in the 1942 short Donald Gets Drafted, Donald's full name is Donald Fauntleroy Duck. Donald's birthday is officially recognized as June 9, 1934,[2] the day his debut film, The Wise Little Hen, was released. However, in The Three Caballeros (1944), his birthday is given as simply "Friday the 13th", which is in reference to the bad luck he experiences in almost all his cartoon appearances. Donald's Happy Birthday (short) gives his birthday as March 13. Donald Duck is a well-known and very popular character especially in Scandinavian countries.

Donald's voice, one of the most identifiable voices in all of animation, was performed by voice actor Clarence "Ducky" Nash up to his death in 1985. It was largely this semi-intelligible speech that would cement Donald's image into audiences' minds and help fuel both Donald's and Nash's rise to stardom.[citation needed]In 1969, Disney On Parade which toured all over the United States and Canada, hired Ellard Davis as the live voice of Donald Duck. Mr. Davis did the voice for 3 years. Since 1985, Donald has been voiced by Tony Anselmo, who was trained by Nash for the role.[citation needed] Donald is a V.I.P. member of the Mickey Mouse Club.

Contents [hide]
1 Donald in animation
1.1 Early appearances
1.2 Wartime Donald
1.3 Post-war animation
2 Characterization
2.1 Personality
2.2 Rivalry with Mickey Mouse
3 Donald in comics
3.1 Early development
3.2 Developments under Taliaferro
3.3 Developments under Barks
3.4 Further developments
4 Donald Duck outside America
4.1 Scandinavia
4.2 Germany
5 Disney Theme Parks
6 Beyond Disney
7 Appearances
7.1 Cartoon shorts
7.2 Movies
7.3 Television series
7.4 Video games
7.5 Famous illustrators
8 Further reading
9 References
10 External links

[edit] Donald in animation

[edit] Early appearances
For more details on this topic, see Donald Duck filmography.

Donald Duck as he first appeared in The Wise Little HenAccording to Leonard Maltin in his introduction to The Chronological Donald - Volume 1, Donald was created by Walt Disney when he heard Clarence Nash doing his "duck" voice while reciting "Mary had a little lamb". Mickey Mouse had lost some of his edge since becoming a role model for children and Disney wanted a character that could portray some of the more negative character traits he could no longer bestow on Mickey.

Donald Duck first appeared in the Silly Symphonies cartoon The Wise Little Hen on June 9, 1934 (though he is mentioned in a 1931 Disney storybook). Donald's appearance in the cartoon, as created by animator **** Lundy, is similar to his modern look—the feather and beak colors are the same, as is the blue sailor shirt and hat—but his features are more elongated, his body plumper, and his feet bigger. Donald's personality is not developed either; in the short, he only fills the role of the unhelpful friend from the original story.

Bert Gilett, director of The Wise Little Hen, brought Donald back in his Mickey Mouse cartoon, Orphan's Benefit on August 11, 1934. Donald is one of a number of characters who are giving performances in a benefit for Mickey's Orphans. Donald's act is to recite the poems Mary Had a Little Lamb and Little Boy Blue, but every time he tries, the mischievous orphans eat his specially made pie, leading the duck to fly into a squawking fit of anger. This explosive personality would remain with Donald for decades to come.

Donald continued to be a hit with audiences. The character began appearing in most Mickey Mouse cartoons as a regular member of the ensemble with Mickey, Minnie, Goofy, and Pluto. Cartoons from this period, such as the 1935 cartoon The Band Concert—in which Donald repeatedly disrupts the Mickey Mouse Orchestra's rendition of The William Tell Overture by playing Turkey in the Straw—are regularly hailed by critics as exemplary films and classics of animation. Animator Ben Sharpsteen also minted the classic Mickey, Donald, and Goofy comedy in 1935, with the cartoon Mickey's Service Station.

In 1936, Donald was redesigned to be a bit fuller, rounder, and cuter. He also began starring in solo cartoons, the first of which was the January 9, 1937 Ben Sharpsteen cartoon, Don Donald. This short also introduced a love interest of Donald's, Donna Duck[3]. Donald's nephews, Huey, Dewey and Louie, would make their first animated appearance a year later in the April 15, 1938 film, Donald's Nephews, directed by Jack King (they had been earlier introduced in the Donald Duck comic strip by Al Taliaferro, see below). By 1938, at most, polls showed that Donald was more popular than Mickey Mouse.[4] Disney could, however, help Mickey regain popularity by redesigning giving him his most appealing design as production for the Fantasia segment The Sorcerer's Apprentice began in 1938.[5]

[edit] Wartime Donald
During World War II, film audiences were looking for brasher, edgier cartoon characters. It is no coincidence that the same era that saw the birth and rise of Bugs Bunny also saw Donald Duck's popularity soar. Before 1941, Donald Duck had appeared in about 50 cartoons. Between 1941 and 1965, Donald would star in over 100.

Donald in Der Fuehrer's FaceSeveral of Donald's shorts during the war were propaganda films, most notably Der Fuehrer's Face, released on January 1, 1943. In it, Donald plays a worker in an artillery factory in "Nutzi Land" (Nazi Germany). He struggles with long working hours, very small food rations, and having to salute every time he sees a picture of the Führer (Adolf Hitler). These pictures appear in many places, such as on the assembly line in which he is screwing in the detonators of various sizes of shells. In the end he becomes little more than a small part in a faceless machine with no choice but to obey until he falls, suffering a nervous breakdown. Then Donald wakes up to find that his experience was in fact a nightmare. At the end of the short Donald looks to the Statue of Liberty and the American flag with renewed appreciation. Der Fuehrer's Face won the 1942 Academy Award for Animated Short Film. Other notable shorts from this period include the Army shorts, seven films that follow Donald's life in the US Army from his drafting to his life in basic training under sergeant Pete to his first actual mission as a commando having to sabotage a Japanese air base. Titles in the series include:

Donald Gets Drafted - (May 1, 1942).
The Vanishing Private - (September 25, 1942).
Sky Trooper - (November 8, 1942).
Fall Out Fall In - (April 23, 1943).
The Old Army Game - (November 5, 1943).
Home Defense - (November 26, 1943).
Commando Duck - (June 2, 1944).
Donald Gets Drafted also featured Donald having a physical examination before joining the army. According to it Donald has flat feet and is unable to distinguish between the colors green and blue, which is a type of color blindness. Also in this cartoon sergeant Pete comments on Donald's lack of discipline.

It is also noteworthy that thanks to these films, Donald graced the nose artwork of virtually every type of WWII Allied combat aircraft, from the L-4 Grasshopper to the B-29 Superfortress.

Donald also appears as a mascot—such as in the Army Air Corps 309th Fighter Squadron[6] and the U.S Coast Guard Auxiliary, which showed Donald as a fierce-looking pirate ready to defend the American coast from invaders.[7] Donald also appeared as a mascot emblem for: 415th Fighter Squadron; 438th Fighter Squadron; 479th Bombardment Squadron; 531th Bombardment Squadron.

During World War II, Disney cartoons were not allowed to be imported into Occupied Europe. Since this cost Disney a lot of money, he decided to create a new audience for his films in South America. He decided to make a trip through various Latin American countries with his assistants, and use their experiences and impressions to create two feature length animation films. The first was Saludos Amigos, which consisted of four short segments, two of them with Donald Duck. In the second, he meets his parrot pal Jose Carioca. The second film was The Three Caballeros, in which he meets his rooster friend Panchito.

[edit] Post-war animation
Many of Donald's films made after the war recast the duck as the brunt of some other character's pestering. Donald is repeatedly attacked, harassed, and ridiculed by his nephews, by the chipmunks Chip 'n Dale, or by other one-shot characters such as Humphrey the Bear, Spike the Bee, Bootle Beetle, the Aracuan Bird, Louie the Mountain Lion or a colony of ants. In effect, the Disney artists had reversed the classic screwball scenario perfected by Walter Lantz and others in which the main character is the instigator of these harassing behaviors, rather than the butt of them.

The post-war Donald also starred in educational films, such as Donald in Mathmagic Land and How to have an Accident at Work (both 1959), and made cameos in various Disney projects, such as The Reluctant Dragon (1941) and the Disneyland television show (1959). For this latter show, Donald's uncle Ludwig von Drake was created in 1961.

Clarence Nash voiced Donald for the last time in Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983), making Donald the only character in the film to be voiced by his original actor. Since Nash's death in 1985, Donald's voice has been provided by Tony Anselmo, who was mentored by Nash. Anselmo's voice is heard for the first time in Who Framed Roger Rabbit. In this movie, Donald has a piano duel scene with the Warner Brothers duck Daffy Duck.

Donald has since appeared in a lot of different television shows and (short) animated movies. He played roles in Mickey's Christmas Carol and The Prince and the Pauper and made a cameo appearance in A Goofy Movie.

Donald had a rather small part in the animated television series DuckTales. There, Donald joins the Navy, and leaves his nephews Huey, Dewey and Louie with their Uncle Scrooge, who then has to take care of them. Donald's role in the overall series was fairly limited, as he only ended up appearing in a handful of episodes. Some of the stories in the series were loosely based on the comics by Carl Barks.

Donald made some cameo appearances in Bonkers, before getting his own television show Quack Pack. This series featured a modernized Duck family. Donald was no longer wearing his sailor suit and hat, but a Hawaiian shirt. Huey, Dewey and Louie now are teenagers, with distinct clothing, voices and personalities. Daisy Duck has lost her pink dress and bow and has a new hairdo. Oddly enough, no other family members, besides Ludwig von Drake, appear in 'Quack Pack', and all other Duckburg citizens are humans, and not dogs.

He made a comeback as the star of the Noah's Ark segment of Fantasia 2000, as first mate to Noah. Donald musters the animals to the Ark and attempts to control them. He tragically believes that Daisy has been lost, while she believes the same of him, but they are reunited at the end. All this to Edward Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance Marches 1o4.

In an alternate opening for the 2005 Disney film Chicken Little, Donald would have made a cameo appearance as "Ducky Lucky". This scene can be found on the Chicken Little DVD.

Donald also played an important role in Mickey Mouse Works and House of Mouse. In the latter show, he is the co-owner of Mickey's night club.

[edit] Characterization

[edit] Personality
Donald's dominant personality trait is his short temper and, in contrast, his positive look on life. Many Donald shorts starts with Donald in a happy mood, without a care in the world, until something comes and spoils his day. His anger is a great cause of suffering in the duck's life, and he has on multiple occasions got in over his head and lost competitions because of it. There are times when he fights to keep his temper, and he has succeeded a few times, but he always returns to his well known, aggressive self at the end of the day. Donald's aggressive nature is a double-edged sword however, and while it at times is a hindrance and even a handicap for him, it has also helped him in times of need. When faced against a threat of some kind, Donald may get frightened and even intimidated (mostly by Big Bad Pete), but rather than getting scarred, he gets mad and has taken up fights with ghosts, sharks, mountain goats and even the forces of nature. And, more often than never, Donald has come out on top.

Donald can at times be a bit of a bully and a tease, especially against his nephews and Chip and Dale. As animator Fred Spencer once wrote:

The Duck gets a big kick out of imposing on other people or annoying them, but he immediately loses his temper when the tables are turned. In other words, he can dish it out, but he can’t take it.

[8]

However, there is seldom any malice in Donald's pranks. He’s never out to hurt anyone, and if he ever goes to far in his pranks he is always very regretful. In Truant Officer Donald, for example, when he’s tricked into believing he accidentally killed Huey, Dewey and Louie he shows great remorse, blaming himself and willingly takes a kick handed out by one of the “angel” nephews. That is, of course, until he realizes he’s been played a sap and directly loses his temper.

Deep down Donald is a goodhearted and helpful person, always willing to lend a helping hand. He cares deeply for those around him and if anyone else than him threats his near and dear he’s there to defend them no matter what. And even though he can be a teaser at times, in many cases, he’s not the one starting the fights he gets in, but rather a victim of circumstances. Thanks to this Donald can be, like his Uncle Scrooge, both a hero or a villain depending on the story.

Donald has also been shown to be a bit of a show-off. He likes to brag, especially when he’s very skilled at something. This has a tendency to get him into trouble, however, as he also tends to get in over his head. Still, Donald has proven that he is a Jack of all Trades and are, among other things, a good fisher and hockeyplayer.

Last, but not least, among his personality trates is his stubbornness and commitment. Even though Donald at times can be lazy, and he has stated many times that his favorite place is in the hammock, once he’s committed to something he goes in for it 100%, sometimes going to extreme measures to reach his goal. Cause even though Donald isn’t the most lucky character there is, in fact, he has a tendency to “get stuck with all the bad luck”, he never gives up and if someone knocks him down, he always gets right up again.

[edit] Rivalry with Mickey Mouse
Through out his career Donald has shown that he's jealous of Mickey and wants his job as Disney's greatest star. In the early Disney shorts Mickey and Donald were partners, but by the time The Mickey Mouse Club aired on television, it was shown that Donald always wanted the spotlight. One animated short that rivaled the famous Mickey Mouse song was showing Huey, Dewey, and Louie as Boy Scouts and Donald as their Scoutmaster at a cliff near a remote forest and Donald leads them in a song mirroring the Mouseketeers theme "D-O-N-A-L-D D-U-C-K-! Donald Duck!" The rivalry would cause Donald some problems, in a 1988 TV special where Mickey is cursed by a sorcerer to become unnoticed, the world believes Mickey to be kidnapped. Donald Duck is then arrested for the kidnapping of Mickey, as he is considered to be the chief suspect due to their rivalry. However, Donald did later get the charges dismissed due to lack of evidence. Walt Disney, in his Wonderful World of Color, would sometimes make reference to the rivalry. Walt one time had presented Donald with a gigantic birthday cake and commented how it was "even bigger than Mickey's", which pleased Donald. The clip was rebroadcast in November 1984 during a TV special honoring Donald's 50th birthday.

The rivalry between Mickey and Donald has also been shown in Disney's House of Mouse. It was shown that Donald wanted to be the Club's founder and wanted to change the name from House of Mouse to House of Duck. However, in later episodes Donald accepted that Mickey was the founder and worked with Mickey as a partner to make the club profitable.

Mickey Mouse has failed to realize how much Donald does not like him at times, and always counts him as one of his best friends. Despite the rivalry, Donald seems to be an honest friend of Mickey's, and will be faithful to him in tough situations, such as working with Mickey and Goofy as a team akin to the Three Musketeers. In the Kingdom Hearts games, Donald is quite loyal to Mickey, even briefly leaving Sora to follow King Mickey's orders.

The rivalry between Mickey and Donald is not unlike that of Warner Bros. characters Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck, and many animation fans have commented on the parallels present among the four characters.

[edit] Donald in comics
Main article: Donald Duck in comics
While Donald's cartoons enjoy vast popularity in the United States and around the world, his weekly and monthly comic books enjoy their greatest popularity in many European countries, especially Denmark, Norway, Finland and Iceland, but also Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Greece, and Sweden. Most of them are produced and published by the Italian branch of the Walt Disney Company in Italy and by Egmont in Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden. In Germany, the comics are published by Ehapa which has since become part of the Egmont empire. Donald-comics are also being produced in The Netherlands and France. Donald also has been appeared in Japanese comics published by Kodansha and Tokyopop.

According to the INDUCKS, which is a database about Disney comics worldwide, American, Italian and Danish stories have been reprinted in the following countries. In most of them, publications still continue: Australia, Austria, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, the People's Republic of China, Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark (Faroe Islands), Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the former Yugoslavia.

[edit] Early development
Though a 1931 Disney publication called Mickey Mouse Annual mentioned a character named Donald Duck, the character's first appearance in comic-strip format was a newspaper cartoon that was based on the short The Wise Little Hen and published in 1934. For the next few years, Donald made a few more appearances in Disney-themed strips, and by 1936, he had grown to be one of the most popular characters in the Silly Symphonies comic strip. Ted Osborne was the primary writer of these strips, with Al Taliaferro as his artist. Osborne and Taliaferro also introduced several members of Donald's supporting cast, including his nephews, Huey, Dewey, and Louie.

In 1937, an Italian publisher named Mondadori created the first Donald Duck story intended specifically for comic books. The eighteen-page story, written by Federico Pedrocchi, is the first to feature Donald as an adventurer rather than simply a comedic character. Fleetway in England also began publishing comic-book stories featuring the duck.

[edit] Developments under Taliaferro
A daily Donald Duck comic strip drawn by Taliaferro and written by Bob Karp began running in the United States on February 2, 1938; the Sunday strip began the following year. Taliaferro and Karp created an even larger cast of characters for Donald's world. He got a new St. Bernard named Bolivar, and his family grew to include cousin Gus Goose and grandmother Elvira Coot. Donald's new rival girlfriends were Donna and Daisy Duck. Taliaferro also gave Donald his very own automobile, a 1934 Belchfire Runabout, in a 1938 story.

[edit] Developments under Barks

Carl Barks (1994)In 1942, Western Publishing began creating original comic-book stories about Donald and other Disney characters. Bob Karp worked on the earliest of these, a story called "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold". The new publisher meant new illustrators, however: Carl Barks and Jack Hannah. Barks would later repeat the treasure-hunting theme in many more stories.

Barks soon took over the major development of the comic-book version of the duck as both writer and illustrator. Under his pen, the comic version of Donald diverged even further from his animated counterpart, becoming more adventurous, less temperamental, and more eloquent. Black Pete was the only other major character from the Mickey Mouse comic strip to feature in Barks' new Donald Duck universe.

Barks placed Donald in the city of Duckburg, which he populated with a host of supporting players, including Gladstone Gander (1948), Gyro Gearloose (1952), Uncle Scrooge McDuck (1947), Magica de Spell (1961), Flintheart Glomgold (1956), the Beagle Boys (1951), April, May and June (1953), Neighbour Jones (1944) and John D. Rockerduck (1961). Many of Taliaferro's characters made the move to Barks' world as well, including Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Barks placed Donald in both domestic and adventure scenarios, and Uncle Scrooge became one of his favorite characters to pair up with Donald. Scrooge's popularity grew, and by 1952, the character had a comic book of his own. At this point, Barks concentrated his major efforts on the Scrooge stories, and Donald's appearances became more focused on comedy or he was recast as Scrooge's reluctant helper, following his rich uncle around the globe.

[edit] Further developments

A picture of several packaged products displaying pictures of Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck dressed in traditional Japanese attire.Dozens of writers continued to utilize Donald in their stories around the world.

For example the Disney Studio artists, who made comics directly for the European market. Two of them, **** Kinney (1917–1985) and Al Hubbard (1915–1984) created Donald's cousin Fethry Duck.

The American artists Vic Lockman and Tony Strobl (1915–1991), who were working directly for the American comic books, created Moby Duck. Strobl was one of the most productive Disney artists of all time, and drew a lot of stories which Barks wrote after his retirement. In the 1990s, these scripts were re-drawn by Dutch artist Daan Jippes.

Italian publisher Mondadori created many of the stories that were published throughout Europe. They also introduced numerous new characters who are today well known in Europe. One example is Donald Duck's alter-ego, a superhero called Paperinik in Italian, created by Guido Martina (1906–1991) and Giovan Battista Carpi (1927–1991).

Giorgio Cav***ano and Carlo Chendi created Honkey Go-Kart (Umperio Bogarto in Italian), a detective whose name is an obvious parody on Humphrey Bogart. They also created O.K Quack, an extraterrestrial Duck who landed on earth in a spaceship in the shape of a coin. He however lost his spaceship, and befriended Scrooge, and now is allowed to search through his moneybin time after time, looking for his ship.

Romano Scarpa (1927–2005), who was a very important and influential Italian Disney artist, created Brigitta McBridge, a female Duck who is madly in love with Scrooge. Her affections are never answered by him, though, but she keeps trying. Scarpa also came up with ****ie Duck, the granddaughter of Glittering Goldie (Scrooge's possible love-interest from his days in the Klondike) and Kildare Coot, a nephew of Grandma Duck.

Italian artist Corrado Mastantuono created *** *** Ghigno, a cynical, grumpy and not too good looking Duck who teams up with Donald and Gyro a lot.

The American artist William van Horn also introduced a new character: Rumpus McFowl, an old and rather corpulent Duck with a giant appetite and laziness, who is first said to be a cousin of Scrooge. Only later, Scrooge reveals to his nephews Rumpus is actually his half-brother. Later, Rumpus also finds out.

Working for the Danish editor Egmont, artist Daniel Branca (1951–2005) and script-writers Paul Halas and Charlie Martin created Sonny Seagull, an orphan who befriends Huey, Dewey and Louie, and his rival, Mr. Phelps.

The most productive Duck-artist today is Victor Arriagada Rios, who is better known under the name Vicar. He has his own studio where he and his assistants draw the stories sent in by Egmont. Vicar created the character Oono, a prehistoric princess who traveled to Duckburg in the 1990s by using Gyro's time-machine.

The best-known and most popular Duck-artist of this time is Keno Don Rosa. He started doing Disney comics in 1987 for the American publisher Gladstone. He later worked briefly for the Dutch editors, but moved to work directly for Egmont soon afterwards. He created a lot of sequels to Barks' stories, and even a 12-part series of stories about the life of Scrooge McDuck, which won him two Eisner awards. Not all Barks-fans are happy with his work, though, and some claim he's destroying Barks' carefully built world.

Other important artists who have worked with Donald are Freddy Milton and Daan Jippes, who made 18 ten-pagers which experts claim are as good as Barks' work.

Japanese artist Shiro Amano worked with Donald on the graphic novel Kingdom Hearts based on the Disney-Squaresoft videogame.

[edit] Donald Duck outside America
Donald Duck has a worldwide presence, wherever Disney characters can be found, but in some countries he is very popular and takes on a unique character.

[edit] Scandinavia
Donald Duck (Kalle Anka in Sweden, Aku Ankka in Finland, Anders And in Denmark, Andrés Önd in Iceland and Donald Duck in Norway) is a very popular character in Scandinavian countries. In the mid-1930s, Robert S. Hartman, a German who served as a representative of Walt Disney, visited Sweden to supervise the merchandise distribution of Sagokonst (The Art of Fables). Hartman found a studio called L'Ateljé Dekoratör, which produced illustrated cards that were published by Sagokonst. Since the Disney characters on the cards appeared to be exactly 'on-model', Hartman asked the studio to create a local version of the English-language Mickey Mouse Weekly. In 1937 L'Ateljé Dekoratör began publishing Musse Pigg Tidningen (Mickey Mouse Magazine), which had high production values and spanned 23 issues; most of the magazine's content came from local producers, while some material consisted of reprints from Mickey Mouse Weekly. The comic anthology ended in 1938. Hartman helped Disney establish offices in all Scandinavian countries before he left Disney in 1941. Donald became the most popular of the Disney characters in Scandinavia. Kalle Anka & Co, Donald's first dedicated Swedish anthology, started in September 1948. In 2001 the Finnish Post Office issued a stamp set to commemorate the 50th year anniversary of Donald's presence in Finland. By 2005 around one out of every four Norwegians read the Norwegian edition Donald Duck & Co. per week, translating to around 1.3 million regular readers. During the same year, every week 434,000 Swedes read Kalle Anka & Co. By 2005 in Finland the Donald Duck anthology Aku Ankka sold 270,000 copies per issue. Tim Pilcher and Brad Books, authors of The Essential Guide to World Comics, described the Donald anthologies as "the Scandinavian equivalent of the UK's Beano or Dandy, a comic that generations have grown up with, from grandparents to grandchildren."[9]

Hannu Raittila, an author, says that Finnish people recognize an aspect of themselves in Donald; Raittila cites that Donald attempts to retrieve himself from "all manner of unexpected and unreasonable scrapes using only his wits and the slim resources he can put his hands on, all of which meshes nicely with the popular image of Finland as driftwood in the crosscurrents of world politics." Scandinavian voters placing "protest votes" typically write "Donald Duck" as the candidate.[10]

[edit] Germany
Donald Duck is very popular in Germany, where Donald themed comics sell an average of 250,000 copies each week, mostly published in the kids’ weekly Micky Maus and the monthly Donald Duck Special (for adults).[11] The Wall Street Journal called Donald Duck "The Jerry Lewis of Germany", a reference to American star Jerry Lewis's popularity in France.[11] Donald's dialogue in German tends to be more sophisticated and philosophical, he "quotes from German literature, speaks in grammatically complex sentences and is prone to philosophical musings, while the stories often take a more political tone than their American counterparts."[11] Christian Pfeiler - president of D.O.N.A.L.D., a German acronym which stands for "German Organization for Non-commercial Followers of Pure Donaldism" - says Donald is popular in Germany because "almost everyone can identify with him. He has strengths and weaknesses, he lacks polish but is also very cultured and well-read."[11] It is through this everyman persona that Donald is able to voice philosophical truths about Germany society that appeal to both children and adults.[11]

[edit] Disney Theme Parks

Steve Martin and Donald Duck in Disneyland: The First 50 Magical YearsDonald Duck has played a major role in many Disney theme parks over the years. He has actually been seen in more attractions and shows at the parks than Mickey Mouse has. He has appeared over the years in such attractions as Mickey Mouse Revue, Mickey's PhilharMagic, Disneyland: The First 50 Magical Years, Gran Fiesta Tour Starring the Three Caballeros and the updated version of It's a Small World. He also is seen in the parks as a meet-and-greet character.

One long-ago-scrapped idea was also to have a ***per boat ride themed to Donald Duck.

[edit] Beyond Disney

The University of Oregon uses Donald as its Fighting Duck mascotDonald is the only popular film and television cartoon character to appear as a mascot for a major American university: a licensing agreement between Disney and the University of Oregon allows the school's sports teams to use Donald's image as its "Fighting Duck" mascot. In 1984, Donald Duck was named an honorary alumnus of the University of Oregon during his 50th birthday celebration. During a visit to the Eugene Airport, 3,000 to 4,000 fans gathered for the presentation of an academic cap and gown to Donald. Thousands of area residents signed a congratulatory scroll for Donald, and that document is now part of Disney's corporate archives.
In the 1940s, Donald was adopted as an unofficial mascot by Brazilian sports club Botafogo after argentinian cartoonist Lorenzo Mollas, who was working in Brazil at the time, drew him with the club's soccer uniform. Mollas chose Donald because he complains and fights for his rights, like the club's managers at those years, and also because, being a duck, he doesn't lose his ellegance while moving in the water (an allusion to rowing).
Donald's name and image are used on numerous commercial products, one example being Donald Duck brand orange juice, introduced by Citrus World in 1940.
In the 1950s, an early Mad Magazine parody of Mickey Mouse (called "Mickey Rodent", written by "Walt Dizzy") featured "Darnold Duck", whose quacky voice had to be "translated" for the readers, and who was shamed into finally wearing pants.
Although Donald's military service has most been recognized as him in the US Army from his wartime cartoons (and to a lesser extent having Donald in the US Navy from Duck Tales), Walt Disney had authorized Donald to be used as a mascot for the US Coast Guard. The Coast Guard image shows a fierce-looking Donald Duck dressed in a pirate's outfit, appearing vigilant against any potential threats to the coastal regions in the United States. This image is still often used on many Coast Guard bases and Coast Guard cutters today.
In Sweden, a comic book artist named Charlie Christensen got into a legal dispute with Disney when his creation Arne Anka looked similar to Donald Duck (albeit Arne is a pessimistic drunkard). However Charlie made a mockery of the legal action, and staged a fake death for his character, who then had plastic surgery performed and reappeared as Arne X with a more crow-like beak. He later purchased a strap-on duck beak from a novelty gift shop, pointing out that "If Disney are planning to give me any legal action all I have to do is remove my fake beak."
In 1991, the Disney Corporation sued the Israeli caricaturist Dudu Geva for copyright infringement, claiming his character "Donald Dach" in the story "Moby Duck" was a ripoff of Donald.[12] The Courts found in their favor and forced Geva to pay for the legal expenses and remove his book from the shelves. More mildly, the character Howard The Duck's original design was modified to include pants allegedly due to pressure from Disney.
In 2005, Donald received his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6840 Hollywood Blvd[13] joining other fictional characters such as Mickey Mouse, Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Woody Wood******, The Simpsons, Winnie the Pooh, Kermit the Frog, Big Bird, Godzilla and Snow White.
Donald's fame has led Disney to license the character for a number of video games, such as the Kingdom Hearts series, where Donald is the court magician of Disney Castle. He accompanies Goofy and a young boy named Sora on a quest to rescue King Mickey Mouse and defeat the Heartless. He is voiced by Tony Anselmo in the English version and Kōichi Yamadera in the Japanese version.

[edit] Appearances

[edit] Cartoon shorts
see Donald Duck filmography

[edit] Movies
The Reluctant Dragon (1941)
Saludos Amigos (1942)
The Three Caballeros (1944)
Fun and Fancy Free (1947)
Melody Time (1948)
Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983)
Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988)
Mickey's 60th Birthday (1988)
The Prince and the Pauper (1990)
A Goofy Movie (1995)
Fantasia 2000 (1999)
Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999)
Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse (2001)
Mickey's House of Villains (2002)
Mickey's PhilharMagic (2003)
Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004)
Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004)
The Lion King 1½ (2004)

[edit] Television series
DuckTales (1987–1990) (recurring guest)
Donald Duck Presents (compilation of classic Disney shorts)
Donald's Quack Attack (compilation of classic Disney shorts)
Bonkers (1993–1995) (cameo)
Quack Pack (1996–1997)
Mickey Mouse Works (1999–2000)
House of Mouse (2001–2003)
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006)

[edit] Video games
Donald Duck
Donald Duck's Playground (1984)
Donald's Alphabet Chase (1988)
Quackshot (1991)
The Lucky Dime Caper starring Donald Duck (1991)
World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck (1992)
Deep Duck Trouble Starring Donald Duck (1993)
Disney's Magical Quest 3 Starring Mickey and Donald (1995), (2005)
Maui Mallard in Cold Shadow (1996)
Disney's Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers (2000)
Mickey's Speedway USA (2000)
Disney Golf (2002)
Disney's PK: Out of the Shadows (2002)
Kingdom Hearts (2002)
Kingdom Hearts Final Mix (2002)
Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories (2004)
Kingdom Hearts II (2006)
Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ (2007)
Disney TH!NK Fast: The Ultimate Trivia Showdown (2008)
Kingdom Hearts coded (2008, 2009)
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep (TBA 2009)
Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days (2009)

[edit] Famous illustrators
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009)

Carl Barks
Luciano Bottaro
Giovan Battista Carpi
Giorgio Cav***ano
William Van Horn
Daan Jippes
Don Rosa
Marco Rota
Romano Scarpa
Tony Strobl
Al Taliaferro
Vicar
Tetsuya Nomura
Shiro Amano
Naci Taşdöğen

[edit] Further reading
Ariel Dorfman, Armand Mattelart, David Kunzle (trans.), How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic ISBN 0-88477-023-0 (Marxist Critique)
Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney's Donald Duck: 50 Years of Happy Frustration, Courage Books, May 1990 ISBN 978-0894715303.

[edit] References
^ "Donald Duck". Disney Archives. Disney. http://disney.go.com/vault/arc...d/donald/donald.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.
^ "When is Donald Duck's birthday? When did he debut?". Guest Services. Disney. http://home.disney.go.com/gues...qs#history_archives9. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.
^ Although the Walt Disney Company claimed Donna Duck to be the same character as Donald's long-time love interest Daisy Duck, this is not so in Karp/Taliaferro comics (1951), where she is a separate character, appearing together with Daisy in a couple of daily newspaper strips. Early illustrations of Daisy also show a clear distinction between the two, Donna having Mexican accent, contrary to Daisy.
^ http://www.bcdb.com/bcdb/cartoon.cgi?film=15&m=r
^ The Golden Age of Mickey Mouse
^ "309th Fighter Squadron". 31st Fighter Group. http://www.31stfightergroup.co...e/history/309th.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.
^ Noble, Dennis L. (2001-06). "The Corsair Fleet". The Beach Patrol and Corsair Fleet. Coast Guard. http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-cp/hi...y/h_beachpatrol.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.
^ The Chronological Donald Volume One
^ Pilcher, Tim and Brad Brooks. (Foreword: Dave Gibbons). The Essential Guide to World Comics. Collins and Brown. 2005. 244.
^ Kallionpää, Katri. "Donald Duck holds his own in the north." Helsingin Sanomat. March 7, 2007. Retrieved on March 4, 2009.
^ a b c d e "Why Donald Duck Is the Jerry Lewis of Germany", Susan Bernofsky, Wall Street Journal, May 23 2009
^ Becher, Nir. "The Duck". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/p...ContrassID=14&title='The%20Duck'. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.
^ "Donald Duck". Hollywood Icons. Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. http://www.tibp.com/cgi-bin/fo...xdirectory?cc=WOFAME. Retrieved on 2007-08-30.

[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Donald Duck
Donald Duck at the INDUCKS
Donald Duck's family tree
Toonopedia: Donald Duck
Donald Duck shorts anthology
Aku Ankka (Finnish)
[show]v • d • eDisney characters

Mickey Mouse universe Mickey Mouse · Minnie Mouse · Oswald the Lucky Rabbit · Goofy · Pluto · Pete · Clarabelle Cow · Horace Horsecollar · Clara Cluck · Chip 'n Dale · Mortimer Mouse · Max Goof · PJ · Morty and Ferdie Fieldmouse · Eli Squinch · The Phantom Blot · Sylvester Shyster · Chief O'Hara · Detective Casey · Eega Beeva · Dinah the Dachshund · Butch the Bulldog · Fifi the Peke · Figaro the Kitten

Donald Duck universe Donald Duck · Daisy Duck · Scrooge McDuck · Huey, Dewey, and Louie · Ludwig Von Drake · Beagle Boys · Humphrey the Bear • Gladstone Gander · Gyro Gearloose · Grandma Duck · Gus Goose · Goldie O'Gilt · Flintheart Glomgold · Darkwing Duck · Launchpad McQuack · Magica De Spell · April, May and June · Webby Vanderquack · Bentina Beakley · Fenton Crackshell · Brigitta MacBridge · Fethry Duck · José Carioca · Panchito Pistoles · Peter Pig · Madam Mim · J. Audubon Woodlore

[show]v • d • eDisney's DuckTales

Characters Main characters: Scrooge McDuck · Huey, Dewey, and Louie · Launchpad McQuack · Webby Vanderquack · Mrs. Beakley · Duckworth · Gyro Gearloose · Doofus · Bubba · Fenton Crackshell/GizmoDuck
Villains: The Beagle Boys · El Capitan · Flintheart Glomgold · Magica De Spell · Merlock · Pete · Phantom Blot
Minor characters: Donald Duck · Mrs. Featherby · Goldie O'Gilt · Gandra Dee · Little Helper · Gladstone Gander · Ludwig Von Drake

Misc Duckburg · Calisota · Money Bin · Scrooge's Number One Dime · The Junior Woodchucks(Guidebook)

Media Episodes · Sport Goofy in Soccermania · DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp · DuckTales (video game) · DuckTales 2 · DuckTales: The Quest for Gold · Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers · Quackshot · The Lucky Dime Caper · Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue

See also Scrooge McDuck universe · Carl Barks · Darkwing Duck · Quack Pack · The Disney Afternoon

[show]v • d • eWalt Disney Consumer Products

Disney Publishing
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Franchises 101 Dalmatians · Aladdin · Baby Einstein · Cars · The Cheetah Girls · Disney Fairies · Disney Princess · Disney Villains · Donald Duck · Hannah Montana · The Haunted Mansion · High School Musical · The Lion King · The Little Mermaid · Lizzie McGuire · Mickey Mouse · The Mighty Ducks · The Muppets · Pirates of the Caribbean · Pixar · Power Rangers · Roger Rabbit • That's So Raven · Winnie the Pooh · Wizards of Waverly Place

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Categories: Donald Duck | Animated film series | Animal superheroes | Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe | Dell Comics titles | Disney Comics titles | Donald Duck universe characters | DuckTales characters | Fictional ducks | Fictional martial artists | Gemstone Comics titles | Gladstone Comics titles | Gold Key Comics titles | Kingdom Hearts characters | Mickey Mouse universe characters | Disney comics characters | 1934 introductions | Fictional anthropomorphic characters
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Mickey Mouse
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Mickey Mouse

First appearance Plane Crazy (May 15, 1928)
Created by Walt Disney
Ub Iwerks
Voiced by Walt Disney
(1928–1947)
Jimmy MacDonald (1947–1977)
Wayne Allwine (1977-2009)
Mickey Mouse is a comic animal cartoon character who has become an icon for The Walt Disney Company. Mickey Mouse was created in 1928 by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks[1] and voiced by Walt Disney. The Walt Disney Company celebrates his birth as November 18, 1928 upon the release of Steamboat Willie.[2] The anthropomorphic mouse has evolved from being simply a character in animated cartoons and comic strips to become one of the most recognizable symbols in the world. Mickey is currently the main character in the Disney Channel's Playhouse Disney series "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse." Mickey is the leader of The Mickey Mouse Club.

Contents [hide]
1 Creation and debut
1.1 Plane Crazy
2 Early landmarks
2.1 First encounter with Black / Peg Leg Pete
2.2 Addition of sound to the series
3 Roles and design
3.1 Mickey as a suitor
3.2 First gloved appearance
3.3 Depiction as a regular mouse
3.4 Mickey as a soldier
4 Mouse in transition
4.1 Mickey Mouse Club
4.2 First comic strip appearance
4.3 Classical music performances
4.4 Departure of a co-creator and consequences
4.5 Appearances in comics
5 Later Mickey History
5.1 Recent history
5.2 Video games
5.3 Toys and games
6 Design and voice
7 Social impact
7.1 Use in politics
7.2 Pejorative use of Mickey's name
8 Legal issues
8.1 Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates
8.2 Censorship
9 Criticism of Mickey Mouse
10 Filmography
11 See also
12 References
13 External links

Creation and debut

One of the first MickeysMickey was created as a replacement for Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, an earlier cartoon character created by the Disney studio for Charles Mintz of Universal Studios.[3]

When Disney asked for a larger budget for his popular Oswald series, Mintz announced he had hired the bulk of Disney's staff, but that Disney could keep doing the Oswald series, as long as he agreed to a budget cut and went on the payroll. Mintz owned Oswald and thought he had Disney over a barrel. Angrily, Disney refused the deal and returned to produce the final Oswald cartoons he contractually owed Mintz. Disney was dismayed at the betrayal by his staff, but determined to restart from scratch. The new Disney Studio initially consisted of animator Ub Iwerks and a loyal apprentice artist, Les Clark. One lesson Disney learned from the experience was to thereafter always make sure that he owned all rights to the characters produced by his company.

In the spring of 1928, Disney asked Ub Iwerks to start drawing up new character ideas. Iwerks tried sketches of various animals, such as dogs and cats, but none of these appealed to Disney. A female cow and male horse were also rejected. They would later turn up as Clarabelle Cow and Horace Horsecollar. (A male frog, also rejected, would later show up in Iwerks own Flip the Frog series.)[4] Walt Disney got the inspiration for Mickey Mouse from his old pet mouse he used to have on his farm. In 1925, Hugh Harman drew some sketches of mice around a photograph of Walt Disney. These inspired Ub Iwerks to create a new mouse character for Disney.[5] "Mortimer Mouse" had been Disney's original name for the character before his wife, Lillian convinced him to change it, and ultimately Mickey Mouse came to be.[6][7] Actor Mickey Rooney has claimed that, during his Mickey McGuire days, he met cartoonist Walt Disney at the Warner Brothers studio, and that Disney was inspired to name Mickey Mouse after him.[8] Said Disney:

"We felt that the public, and especially the children, like animals that are cute and little. I think we are rather indebted to Charlie Chaplin for the idea. We wanted something appealing, and we thought of a tiny bit of a mouse that would have something of the wistfulness of Chaplin — a little fellow trying to do the best he could. When people laugh at Mickey Mouse, it's because he's so human; and that is the secret of his popularity. I only hope that we don't lose sight of one thing — that it was all started by a mouse."[9]

Plane Crazy
Mickey and Minnie debuted in the cartoon short Plane Crazy, first released on May 15, 1928. The cartoon was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks was also the main animator for this short, and reportedly spent six weeks working on it. In fact, Iwerks was the main animator for every Disney short released in 1928 and 1929. Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising also assisted Disney during those years. They had already signed their contracts with Charles Mintz, but he was still in the process of forming his new studio and so for the time being they were still employed by Disney. This short would be the last they animated under this somewhat awkward situation.

The plot of Plane Crazy was fairly simple. Mickey is apparently trying to become an aviator in emulation of Charles Lindbergh. After building his own aircraft, he proceeds to ask Minnie to join him for its first flight, during which he repeatedly and unsuccessfully attempts to kiss her, eventually resorting to force. Minnie then parachutes out of the plane. While distracted by her, Mickey loses control of the plane. This becomes the beginning of an out-of-control flight that results in a series of humorous situations and eventually in the crash-landing of the aircraft.

Mickey as portrayed in Plane Crazy was mischievous, amorous, and has often been described as a rogue. At the time of its first release, however, Plane Crazy apparently failed to impress audiences, and to add insult to injury, Walt could not find a distributor. Though understandably disappointed, Walt went on to produce a second Mickey short: The Gallopin' Gaucho.

Early landmarks

First encounter with Black / Peg Leg Pete
The Gallopin' Gaucho was again co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks, with the latter serving as the sole animator in this case. The short was intended as a parody of Douglas Fairbanks's The Gaucho, a film first released on November 21, 1928. Following the original film, the events of the short take place in the Pampas of Argentina. The gaucho of the title was Mickey himself. He is first seen riding on a rhea, instead of a horse as would be expected (or an ostrich as is often reported). He soon encounters "Cantina Argentina", apparently serving as the local bar and restaurant. Mickey proceeds to enter the establishment and take a seat. He apparently just wants to relax with some drinking and tobacco smoking. Also present at the establishment are Pegleg Pete (later renamed Black Pete, or just Pete), a wanted outlaw and fellow customer for the time being, and Minnie Mouse, the barmaid and dancer of the establishment, at the time performing a tango. Both customers soon begin to flirt with Minnie and to rival one another. At some point Pete proceeds in kidnapping Minnie and attempts to escape on his horse. Mickey gives chase on his rhea. He soon catches up to his rival and they proceed to fight with swords. Mickey emerges the victor of this joust. The finale of the short has Mickey and Minnie riding the rhea into the distance.

In later interviews, Iwerks would comment that Mickey as featured in The Gallopin' Gaucho was intended to be a swashbuckler, an adventurer modeled after Fairbanks himself. This short marks the first encounter between Mickey and Black Pete, a character already established as an antagonist in both the Alice Comedies and the Oswald series. Based on Mickey and Minnie acting as strangers to each other before the finale, it was presumably intended to feature their original acquaintance to each other as well. Modern audiences have commented that all three characters seem to be coming out of rough, lower class backgrounds that little resemble their later versions. Consequently the short is arguably of some historical significance.

At the time of its original production though, Walt again failed to find a distributor. It would be first released on December 30, 1928, following the release of another Mickey short. Reportedly Mickey was at first thought to be much too similar to Oswald and this resulted in the apparent lack of interest in him. Walt would soon start to contemplate ways to distinguish the Mickey Mouse series from his previous work and that of his rivals. The result of his contemplations would be the third Mickey short to be produced, the second to be released and the first to really draw the attention of the audiences: Steamboat Willie.

Addition of sound to the series

Mickey Mouse in Steamboat Willie (1928)Steamboat Willie was first released on November 18, 1928. It was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks again served as the head animator, assisted by Johnny Cannon, Les Clark, Wilfred Jackson and **** Lundy. This short was intended as a parody of Buster Keaton's Steamboat Bill Jr., first released on May 12 of the same year. Although it was the third Mickey cartoon produced, it was the first to find a distributor, and thus has been cited as Mickey's debut. Willie featured changes to Mickey's appearance (in particular, simplifying his eyes to large dots) that established his look for later cartoons.

The cartoon was not the first cartoon to feature a soundtrack connected to the action. Fleischer Studios, headed by brothers Dave and Max Fleischer, had already released a number of sound cartoons using the DeForest system in the mid-1920s. However, these cartoons did not keep the sound synchronized throughout the film. For Willie, Disney had the sound recorded with a click track that kept the musicians on the beat. This precise timing is apparent during the "Turkey in the Straw" sequence, when Mickey's actions exactly match the accompanying instruments. Animation historians have long debated who had served as the composer for the film's original music. This role has been variously attributed to Wilfred Jackson, Carl Stalling and Bert Lewis, but identification remains uncertain. Walt Disney himself was voice actor for both Mickey and Minnie.

The script had Mickey serving aboard Steamboat Willie under Captain Pete. At first he is seen piloting the steamboat while whistling. Then Pete arrives to take over piloting and angrily throws him out of the boat's bridge. They soon have to stop for cargo to be transferred on board. Almost as soon as they leave, Minnie arrives. She was apparently supposed to be their only passenger but was late to board. Mickey manages to pick her up from the river shore. Minnie accidentally drops her sheet music for the popular folk song "Turkey in the Straw". A goat which was among the animals transported on the steamboat proceeds to eat the sheet music. Consequently Mickey and Minnie use its tail to turn it into a phonograph which is playing the tune. Through the rest of the short, Mickey uses various other animals as musical instruments. Captain Pete is eventually disturbed by all this noise and places Mickey back to work. Mickey is reduced to peeling potatoes for the rest of the trip. A parrot attempts to make fun of him but is then thrown to the river by Mickey. This served as the final scene of this short.

Audiences at the time of Steamboat Willie's release were reportedly impressed by the use of sound for comedic purposes. Sound films were still considered innovative. The first feature-length movie with dialogue sequences, The J*** Singer starring Al Jolson, was released on October 6, 1927. Within a year of its success, most United States movie theaters had installed sound film equipment. Walt Disney apparently intended to take advantage of this new trend and, arguably, managed to succeed. Most other cartoon studios were still producing silent products and so were unable to effectively act as competition to Disney. As a result Mickey would soon become the most prominent animated character of the time. Walt Disney soon worked on adding sound to both Plane Crazy and The Gallopin' Gaucho (which had originally been silent releases) and their new release added to Mickey's success and popularity. A fourth Mickey short, The Barn Dance, was also put into production; however, Mickey does not actually speak until The Karnival Kid in 1929 when his first spoken words were "Hot dogs, Hot dogs!" After Steamboat Willie was released, Mickey became a close competitor to Felix the Cat, and his popularity would grow as he was continuously featured in sound cartoons. By 1929, Felix would lose popularity among theater audiences, and Pat Sullivan decided to produce all future Felix cartoons in sound as a result.[10] Unfortunately, audiences did not respond well to Felix's transition to sound and by 1930, Felix had faded from the screen [11]

Roles and design

Mickey as a suitor
The Barn Dance, first released on March 14, 1929, was the first of twelve Mickey shorts released during that year. It was directed by Walt Disney with Ub Iwerks as the head animator. This short is notable for featuring Mickey turned down by Minnie in favor of Pete. It is also an unusual appearance of the Pete character; previously depicted as a menacing villain, he is portrayed here as a well-mannered gentleman. In addition, Mickey was not depicted as a hero but as a rather ineffective young suitor. In his sadness and crying over his failure, Mickey appears unusually emotional and vulnerable. It has been commented, however, that this only serves to add to the audience's empathy for the character.

First gloved appearance
"Ever wonder why we always wear these white gloves?" - Various characters (with minor variations)

Mickey in gloves.The Opry House, first released on March 28, 1929, was the second short released during the year. This short introduced Mickey's gloves. Mickey can be seen wearing them in most of his subsequent appearances. Supposedly one reason for adding the white gloves was to allow audiences to distinguish the characters' hands when they appeared against their bodies, as both were black (Mickey did not appear in color until The Band Concert in 1935). The three black lines on the backs of the gloves represent darts in the gloves' fabric extending from between the digits of the hand, typical of kid glove design of the era.

Depiction as a regular mouse
When the Cat's Away, first released on April 18, 1929, was the third Mickey short to be released that year. It was essentially a remake of one of the Alice Comedies, Alice Rattled by Rats, which had been first released on January 15, 1926. Kat Nipp makes his second appearance, though his name is given as "Tom Cat" (this describes his being a tom cat, and the character should not be confused with the co-star of the Tom and Jerry series). He is seen getting drunk on alcoholic beverages. Then he leaves his house to go hunting. In his absence an army of mice invade his house in search of food. Among them are Mickey and Minnie, who proceed to turn this gathering into a party. This short is unusual in depicting Mickey and Minnie as having the size and partly the behavior of regular mice. The set standard both before and after this short was to depict them as having the size of rather short human beings. On another note, since this short was released during the Prohibition era, the alcoholic beverages would probably have been products of bootlegging.[citation needed]

Mickey as a soldier
The next Mickey short to be released is also considered unusual. It was The Barnyard Battle, first released on April 25, 1929. This short is notable as the first to depict Mickey as a soldier and the first to place him in combat.

Mouse in transition

Mickey Mouse Club
In 1929, Disney began the first of what would later be many Mickey Mouse Clubs, which were located in hundreds of movie theaters across the United States.[12]

First comic strip appearance
By this point Mickey had appeared in fifteen commercially successful animated shorts and was easily recognized by the public. So Walt Disney was approached by King Features Syndicate with the offer to license Mickey and his supporting characters for use in a comic strip. Walt accepted and Mickey made his first comic strip appearance on January 13, 1930. The comical plot was credited to Walt Disney himself, art to Ub Iwerks and inking to Win Smith. The first week or so of the strip featured a loose adaptation of Plane Crazy. Minnie soon became the first addition to the cast. The strips first released between January 13, 1930 and March 31 1930 have been occasionally reprinted in comic book form under the collective title "Lost on a Desert Island". Animation historian Jim Korkis notes "After the eighteenth strip[s], Iwerks left and his inker, Win Smith, continued drawing the gag-a-day format..."[13]

Classical music performances
Meanwhile in animation, two more Mickey shorts had been released. The first of them was The Barnyard Concert, first released on March 3, 1930. It featured Mickey conducting an orchestra. The only recurring characters among its members were Clarabelle as a flutist and Horace as a drummer. Their rendition of the Poet and Peasant Overture (by Franz von Suppé) is humorous enough; but it has been noted that several of the gags featured were repeated from previous shorts. The second, was originally released on March 14, 1930 under the title Fiddlin' Around but has since been renamed to Just Mickey. Both titles give an accurate enough description of the short which has Mickey performing a violin solo. It is only notable for Mickey's emotional renditions of the finale to the "William Tell Overture", Robert Schumann's "Träumerei" ("Reverie"), and Franz Liszt's "Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2", the latter which would appear on a regular basis in shorts starring Bugs Bunny, Tom and Jerry and Woody Wood******.

In The Band Concert, the first Mickey Mouse cartoon filmed in Technicolor, Mickey conducted the William Tell Overture, but in the cartoon is swept up by a tornado, along with his orchestra. It is said that conductor Arturo Toscanini so loved this short that, upon first seeing it, he asked the projectionist to run it again.

Mickey made his most famous classical music appearance in 1940 in the classic Disney film Fantasia. His screen "role" as The Sorcerer's Apprentice, set to the symphonic poem of the same name by Paul Dukas, is perhaps the most famous segment of the film. The segment features no dialogue at all, only the music. The apprentice (Mickey), not willing to do his chores, puts on the sorcerer's magic hat after the sorcerer goes to bed and casts a spell on a broom, which causes the broom to come to life and perform the most tiring chore—filling up a deep well using two buckets of water. When the well eventually overflows, Mickey finds himself unable to control the broom, leading to a near-flood. After the segment ends, Mickey is seen in silhouette shaking hands with Leopold Stokowski, who conducts all the music heard in Fantasia.

Departure of a co-creator and consequences
They were followed by Cactus Kid, first released on April 11, 1930. As the title implies the short was intended as a Western movie parody. But it is considered to be more or less a remake of The Gallopin' Gaucho set in Mexico instead of Argentina. Mickey was again cast as a lonely traveler who walks into the local tavern and starts flirting with its dancer. The latter is again Minnie. The rival suitor to Mickey is again Pete though using the alias Peg-Leg Pedro. For the first time in a Mickey short, Pete was depicted as having a peg-leg. This would become a recurring feature of the character. The rhea of the original short was replaced by Horace Horsecollar. This is considered to be his last non-anthropomorphic appearance. The short is considered significant for being the last Mickey short to be animated by Ub Iwerks.

Shortly before its release, Iwerks left the Studio to start his own bankrolled by Disney's then-distributor Pat Powers. Powers and Disney had a falling out over money due Disney from the distribution deal. It was in response to losing the right to distribute Disney's cartoons that Powers made the deal with Iwerks, who had long harbored a desire to head his own studio. The departure is considered a turning point to the careers of both Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse. The former lost the man who served as his closest colleague and confidant since 1919. The latter lost the man responsible for his original design and for the direction and/or animation of several of the shorts released till this point, and some would argue Mickey's creator. Walt Disney has been credited for the inspiration to create Mickey, but Iwerks was the one to design the character and the first few Mickey Mouse cartoons were mostly or entirely drawn by Iwerks. Consequently some animation historians have suggested that Iwerks should be considered the actual creator of Mickey Mouse. It has been pointed that advertising for the early Mickey Mouse cartoons credit them as "A Walt Disney Comic, drawn by Ub Iwerks". Later Disney Company reissues of the early cartoons tend to credit Walt Disney alone.

Disney and his remaining staff continued the production of the Mickey series, and he was able to eventually find a number of animators to replace Iwerks. As the Great Depression progressed and Felix the Cat faded from the movie screen, Mickey's popularity would rise, and by 1932, the Mickey Mouse Club would have one million members[14] and Walt would receive a special Oscar for creating Mickey Mouse as well; in 1935, Disney would also begin to phase out the Mickey Mouse Clubs, due to administration problems.[15] Despite being eclipsed by the Silly Symphonies short The Three Little Pigs in 1933, Mickey still maintained great popularity among theater audiences too, until 1935, when polls showed that Popeye the Sailor was more popular than Mickey.[16] By 1934, Mickey merchandise had also earned $600,000.00 a year.[17]

In 1994, The Band Concert was voted the third-greatest cartoon of all time in a poll of animation professionals. By colorizing and partially redesigning Mickey, Walt would put Mickey back on top once again, and Mickey would also reach popularity he never reached before as audiences now gave him more appeal;[14] in 1935, Walt would also receive a special award from the League of Nations for creating Mickey as well. However, by 1938, the more manic Donald Duck would surpass the passive Mickey, resulting in a redesigned of the mouse;[18] the redesign between 1938 and 1940 also put Mickey at the peak of his popularity we all.[14] However, after 1940, Mickey's popularity would decline.[19] Despite this, the character continued to appear regularly in animated shorts until 1943 (winning his only competitive Academy Award—with Pluto—for a short subject for Lend a Paw) and again from 1946 to 1952.

Appearances in comics
Main article: Mickey Mouse (comics)
In early 1930, after Iwerks' departure, Disney was at first content to continue scripting the Mickey Mouse comic strip, assigning the art to Win Smith. However, Walt's focus had always been in animation and Smith was soon assigned with the scripting as well. Smith was apparently discontent at the prospect of having to script, draw, and ink a series by himself as evidenced by his sudden resignation.

Walt proceeded to search for a replacement among the remaining staff of the Studio. For unknown reasons he selected Floyd Gottfredson, a recently hired employee. At the time Floyd was reportedly eager to work in animation and somewhat reluctant to accept his new assignment. Walt had to assure Floyd that the assignment was only temporary and that he would eventually return to animation. Floyd accepted and ended up holding this "temporary" assignment from May 5, 1930, to November 15, 1975.

Walt Disney's last script for the strip appeared May 17, 1930.[13] Gottfredson's first task was finish the storyline Disney had started on April 1, 1930. The storyline was completed on September 20, 1930 and later reprinted in comic book form as Mickey Mouse in Death Valley. This early adventure expanded the cast of the strip which to this point only included Mickey and Minnie. Among the characters who had their first comic strip appearances in this story were Clarabelle Cow, Horace Horsecollar and Black Pete as well as the debuts of corrupted lawyer Sylvester Shyster and Minnie's uncle Mortimer Mouse. The Death Valley narrative was followed by Mr. Slicker and the Egg Robbers, first printed between September 22 and December 26, 1930, which introduced Marcus Mouse and his wife as Minnie's parents.

Starting with these two early comic strip stories, Mickey's versions in animation and comics are considered to have diverged from each other. While Disney and his cartoon shorts would continue to focus on comedy, the comic strip effectively combined comedy and adventure. This adventurous version of Mickey would continue to appear in comic strips and later comic books throughout the 20th and into the 21st century.

Floyd Gottfredson left his mark with stories such as Mickey Mouse Joins the Foreign Legion (1936) and The Gleam (1942). He also created the Phantom Blot, Eega Beeva, Morty and Ferdie, Captain Churchmouse, and Butch. Besides Gottfredson artists for the strip over the years included Roman Arambula, Rick Hoover, Manuel Gonzales, Carson Van Osten, Jim Engel, Bill Wright, Ted Thwailes and Daan Jippes; writers included Ted Osborne, Merrill De Maris, Bill Walsh, **** Shaw, Roy Williams, Del Connell, and Floyd Norman.

The next artist to leave his mark on the character was Paul Murry in Dell Comics. His first Mickey tale appeared in 1950 but Mickey didn't become a speciality until Murry's first serial for Walt Disney's Comics and Stories in 1953 ("The Last Resort"). In the same period Romano Scarpa in Italy for the magazine Topolino began to revitalize Mickey in stories that brought back the Phantom Blot and Eega Beeva along with new creations such as the Atomo Bleep-Bleep. While the stories at Western Publishing during the Silver Age emphasized Mickey as a detective in the style of Sherlock Holmes, in the modern era several editors and creators have consciously undertaken to depict a more vigorous Mickey in the mold of the classic Gottfredson adventures. This reinnasance has been spearheaded by Byron Erickson, David Gerstein, Noel Van Horn, Michael T. Gilbert and Cesar Ferioli.

Mickey was the main character for the series MM Mickey Mouse Mystery Magazine, published in Italy from 1999 to 2001.

Later Mickey History

Recent history
On November 18, 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, he became the first cartoon character to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The star is located on 6925 Hollywood Blvd.

Melbourne (Australia) runs the annual Moomba festival involving a street procession and appointed Mickey Mouse as their King of Moomba (1977).[20] Although immensely popular with children, there was controversy with the appointment: some Melburnians wanted a 'home-grown' choice, e.g. Blinky Bill; when it was revealed that Patricia O'Carroll (from Disneyland's Disney on Parade show) was performing the mouse, Australian newspapers reported "Mickey Mouse is really a girl!"[21]

Throughout the decades, Mickey Mouse competed with Warner Bros.' Bugs Bunny for animated popularity. But in 1988, in a historic moment in motion picture history, the two rivals finally shared screen time in the Robert Zemeckis film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Warner and Disney signed an agreement stating that each character had exactly the same amount of screen time, right down to the micro-second.

Similar to his animated inclusion into a live-action film on Roger Rabbit, Mickey made a featured cameo appearance in the 1990 television special The Muppets at Walt Disney World where he met Kermit the Frog. The two are established in the story as having been old friends. The Muppets have otherwise spoofed and referenced Mickey over a dozen times since the 1970s.

Mickey appeared on several animated logos for Walt Disney Home Entertainment, starting with the "Neon Mickey" logo and then to the "Sorcerer Mickey" logos used for regular and Classics release titles. He also appeared on the video boxes in the 1980s.

His most recent theatrical cartoon was 1995's short Runaway Brain, while in 1999-2004, he appeared in made-for-video features, like Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas, Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers, and the computer-animated Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas. He has yet to appear in an original Disney film that wasn't based on a classical work.

Many television programs have centered around Mickey, such as the recent shows Mickey Mouse Works (1999—2000), Disney's House of Mouse (2001—2003) and Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006). Prior to all these, Mickey was also featured as an unseen character in the Bonkers episode "You Oughta Be In Toons".

Mickey was the Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade on New Year's Day 2005.

In the Disney on Ice play, Disney Presents Pixar's The Incredibles in a Magic Kingdom/Disneyland Adventure, Mickey and Minnie are kidnapped by an android replica of Syndrome, who seeks to create "his" own theme park in Walt Disney World/Disneyland's place. They are briefly imprisoned in the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction's prison cell before an assault on the robot Syndrome by the Incredible Family forces "him" to place them in laser prisons, but not without using a flamethrower in a botched attempt to incinerate their would-be superhuman saviors. After the robot Syndrome is congealed by Frozone, Mickey and Minnie are finally liberated, the magic and happiness of the Walt Disney World/Disneyland Resort is restored, and the Incredibles become Mickey and Minnie's newest friends.

Video games

King Mickey in Kingdom Hearts II.Like many popular characters, Mickey has starred in many video games, including Mickey Mousecapade on the Nintendo Entertainment System, Mickey Mania: The Timeless Adventures of Mickey Mouse, Mickey's Ultimate Challenge, and Disney's Magical Quest on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Castle of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse on the Sega Genesis, Mickey Mouse: Magic Wands on the Game Boy, and many others. In the 2000s, the Disney's Magical Quest series were ported to the Game Boy Advance, while Mickey made his sixth generation era debut in Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse, a Nintendo GameCube title aimed at younger audiences. Mickey plays a role in the Kingdom Hearts series, as the king of Disney Castle and aide to the protagonist, Sora. King Mickey wields the Keyblade, a weapon in the form of a key that has the power to open any lock and combat darkness.

Toys and games
In 1989, Milton Bradley released the electronic-talking game titled Mickey Says, with three modes featuring Mickey Mouse as its host. Mickey also appeared in other toys and games, including the Worlds of Wonder-released Talking Mickey Mouse.

Design and voice
The character has gone through some major changes through his existence. The first one happened with The Pointer in 1939, where he was given pupils in his eyes, a skin colored face, and a pear-shaped body. In the 40's, he changed once more in The Little Whirlwind, where he used his trademark pants for the last time in decades, lost his tail, got more realistic ears that changed with perspective and a different body anatomy. But this change would only last for a short period of time before returning to the one in The Pointer, with the exception of his pants. In his final theatrical cartoons in the 50's, he was given eyebrows, which were removed in the more recent cartoons.

Mickey's top trademark is his ears, and they have also become a trademark of the Disney company in general. Basic design of Mickey's ears is two very round ears that are attached to a very round head. Other than the 1940s Mickey, he and Minnie's ears have had the unusual characteristic of always being viewable with the same symmetry despite which direction that their respective head is facing. In other words, the ears are always generally in the same position as they are in a frontal view of the character, and appear to be sideways on their head when facing left or right.

A large part of Mickey's screen persona is his famously shy, falsetto voice. From his first speaking role in The Karnival Kid onward, Mickey was voiced by Walt Disney himself, a task in which Disney took great personal pride. (Carl Stalling and Clarence Nash allegedly did some uncredited ADR for Mickey in a few early shorts as well.) However, by 1946, Disney was becoming too busy with running the studio to do regular voice work (and it is speculated his cigarette habit had damaged his voice over the years), and during the recording of the Mickey and the Beanstalk section of Fun and Fancy Free, Mickey's voice was handed over to veteran Disney musician and actor Jimmy MacDonald. (Both Disney's and MacDonald's voices can be heard on the final soundtrack.) MacDonald voiced Mickey in the remainder of the theatrical shorts, and for various television and publicity projects up until his retirement in the mid-1970s, although Walt voiced Mickey again for the introductions of the original 1954—1959 "Mickey Mouse Club" TV series and the "Fourth Anniversary Show" episode of the "Disneyland" TV series aired on September 11, 1958. 1983's Mickey's Christmas Carol marked the theatrical debut of the late Wayne Allwine as Mickey Mouse, who was the voice of Mickey until his death in 2009[22]. Allwine was, incidentally, married to Russi Taylor, the current voice of Minnie Mouse. Les Perkins did the voice of Mickey in the TV special Down and Out with Donald Duck released in 1987.

Social impact

A picture of several packaged products displaying pictures of Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck dressed in traditional Japanese attire.
Use in politics
In the United States, protest votes are often made in order to indicate dissatisfaction with the slate of candidates presented on a particular ballot, or to highlight the inadequacies of a particular voting procedure. Since most states' electoral systems do not provide for blank balloting or a choice of "None of the Above", most protest votes take the form of a clearly non-serious candidate's name entered as a write-in vote[citation needed]. Cartoon characters are typically chosen for this purpose[citation needed]; as Mickey Mouse is the best-known and most-recognized character in America, his name is frequently selected for this purpose. (Other popular selections include Donald Duck and Bugs Bunny.) This phenomenon has the humorous effect of causing Mickey Mouse to be a minor but perennial contestant in nearly all U.S. presidential elections.[citation needed] A similar phenomenon occurs in the parliament elections in Finland and Sweden, although Finns and Swedes usually write Donald Duck or Donald Duck Party as a protest vote.[citation needed]

Mickey Mouse's name has also been known to appear fraudulently on voter registration lists, most recently in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election.[1][2]

Pejorative use of Mickey's name
"Mickey Mouse" is a slang expression meaning small-time, amateurish or trivial. In the UK and Ireland, it also means poor quality or counterfeit.

In The Godfather: Part II, Fredo's justification of betraying Michael is that his orders in the family usually were "Send Fredo off to do this, send Fredo off to do that! Let Fredo to take care of some Mickey Mouse night club somewhere!" as opposed to more meaningful tasks.
In 1984, just after an ice hockey game in which Wayne Gretzky's Edmonton Oilers beat the New Jersey Devils 13-4, Gretzky is quoted as saying to a reporter, "Well, it's time they got their act together, they're ruining the whole league. They had better stop running a Mickey Mouse organization and put somebody on the ice."[23] Reacting to Gretzky's comment, Devils fans wore Mickey Mouse apparel when the Oilers returned to New Jersey.
In the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, a butler at Brunwald castle says to Indy, "Yes, we have tapestries. But if you are a Scottish lord, then I am Mickey Mouse!"
In the 1993 Warner Bros. film Demolition Man, as Sylvester Stallone's character is fighting the malfunctioning AI of his out-of-control police car, he shouts for the system to "Brake! Brake! Brake, now, you Mickey Mouse piece of ****!"[24]
In the 1996 Warner Bros. film Space Jam, Bugs Bunny derogatorily referred to Daffy Duck's idea for the name of their basketball team, asking, "What kind of Mickey Mouse organization would call themselves 'The Ducks?'" (This also referenced the Anaheim Mighty Ducks, a NHL team that was owned by Disney.)
In the United States armed forces, actions that produce good looks, but have little practical use, (such as the specific manner of making beds in basic training or the polishing of brass fittings onboard ship) are commonly referred to as "Mickey Mouse work".
In schools a "Mickey Mouse course" or "Mickey Mouse major" is a class or college major where very little effort is necessary in order to attain a good grade (especially an A) and/or one where the subject matter of such a class is not of any importance in the labor market.[25]
Musicians often refer to a film score that directly follows each action on screen as Mickey Mousing (also mickey-mousing and mickeymousing).[26]
"Mickey Mouse money" is a derogatory term for foreign currency, often used by Americans to describe indigenous currency in a foreign country in which they are traveling. The term also refers to fake banknotes, especially in UK.[citation needed] (Disney theme parks and resorts have an actual kind of Mickey Mouse money, Disney Dollars. This money is worthless outside the Disney property and stores).
The software company Microsoft has been derogatorily called "Mickeysoft".[27]
In card games, it is common for a "Mickey Mouse hand" to be played for instructional purposes. In such a hand all cards of all players that would normally be concealed are displayed, to demonstrate to new players the rules and procedures of the game.[citation needed]
In motorsports, short road courses with tight corners, short straightways and no overtaking spots are sometimes called "Mickey Mouse tracks".[citation needed]
In rhyming slang, a "Mickey" refers to a Liverpudlian or Liverpool FC supporter (ie. Mickey Mouser = Scouser). It may also refer to someone's home (house = Mickey Mouse).[citation needed]
The Los Angeles Mafia was known as the "Mickey Mouse Mafia," due to their disorganized behavior and mess-ups.[citation needed]
In the beginning of the 1980s, then-British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher once called the European Parliament a "Mickey Mouse parliament", meaning a discussion club without influence.[28]
Britons call the MLS, or Major League Soccer, the "Mickey Mouse League."[citation needed]
In the British sitcom Red Dwarf: After the team's substandard equipment nearly cost them their lives, one character pointed out, "We're a real Mickey Mouse operation, aren't we?" Another replied, "Mickey Mouse? We ain't even Betty Boop!"
Because of Mickey's status as Disney's signature character, he is often jokingly referred to as the boss of The Walt Disney Company. Disney employees sometimes say they "work for the Mouse." [29][30] In the South Park season 13 episode "The Ring," Mickey is portrayed as a greedy, sadistic and foul-mouthed head of the studio, who berates and beats the Jonas Brothers after they complain that their purity rings are overshadowing their music.
The 2009 NBA Finals between the Los Angeles Lakers and Orlando Magic are being dubbed the "Mickey Mouse Series"[31] due to the Disney theme parks located near Los Angeles (Disneyland) and Orlando (Walt Disney World), plus the fact that the Finals will air on ABC, which Disney also owns.
In an episode of the American sitcom Full House that guest starred Jaleel White as Steve Urkel (from fellow sitcom Family Matters), Michelle Tanner (played by Mary-Kate & Ashley Olsen) asks Urkel, "Why do you talk like a Mickey Mouse?".

Legal issues

A typical style of sign in Walt Disney World, showing one of many uses by Disney of the Mickey ears logo.It is sometimes erroneously stated that the Mickey Mouse character is only copyrighted. In fact, the character, like all major Disney characters, is also trademarked, which lasts in perpetuity as long as it continues to be used commercially by its owner. So, whether or not a particular Disney cartoon goes into the public domain, the characters themselves may not be used as trademarks without authorization. However, within the United States, European Union and some other jurisdictions, the Copyright Term Extension Act (sometimes called the 'Mickey Mouse Protection Act' due to extensive lobbying by the Disney corporation) and similar legislation has ensured that works such as the early Mickey Mouse cartoons will remain under copyright until at least 2023. However a Los Angeles Times article explains that ambiguity and "imprecision" in early film credits copyright claims could invalidate Disney's copyright on the earliest version of the character.[32]

The Walt Disney Company has become well known for protecting its trademark on the Mickey Mouse character, whose likeness is so closely associated with the company, with particular zeal. In 1989, Disney threatened legal action against three daycare centers in Florida for having Mickey Mouse and other Disney characters painted on their walls. The characters were removed, and rival Universal Studios replaced them with Universal cartoon characters. [33]

Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates
In 1971, a group of underground cartoonists calling themselves "The Air Pirates," after a group of villains from early Mickey Mouse films, produced a comic called Air Pirates Funnies. In the first issue, cartoonist Dan O'Neill depicted Mickey and Minnie Mouse engaging in explicit sexual behavior and consuming drugs. As O'Neill explained, "The air pirates were...some sort of bizarre concept to steal the air, pirate the air, steal the media...Since we were cartoonists, the logical thing was Disney."[34]. Rather than change the appearance or name of the character, which O'Neill felt would dilute the parody, the mouse depicted in Air Pirates Funnies looks like and is named "Mickey Mouse." Disney sued for copyright infringement, and after a series of appeals, O'Neill eventually lost and was ordered to pay Disney $1.9 million. The outcome of the case remains controversial amongst free-speech advocates. New York Law School professor Edward Samuels said, "[The Air Pirates] set parody back twenty years."[35]

Censorship
In 1930, The German Board of Film Censors prohibited showing a Mickey Mouse film because they felt the kepi-wearing mouse negatively portrayed the Germans and would "reawaken the latest anti-German feeling existing abroad since the War".[36] A mid 1930s German newspaper article even stated :

"Mickey Mouse is the most miserable ideal ever revealed...Healthy emotions tell every independent young man and every honorable youth that the dirty and filfth-covered vermin, the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom, cannot be the ideal type of animal...Away with Jewish brutalization of the people! Down with Mickey Mouse! Wear the Swastika Cross!"[37][38][39]

Art Spiegelman used this quote on the opening page of the second volume of his comic Maus II.

The 1935 Romanian authorities banned Mickey Mouse films from cinemas after they feared that children would be scared to see a ten-foot mouse in the movie theatre.[40] In 1938, based on the Ministry of Popular Culture's recommendation that a reform was necessary "to raise children in the firm and imperialist spirit of the Fascist revolution," the Italian Government banned Mickey and other foreign Children's literature.[41]

Criticism of Mickey Mouse
Mickey Mouse's global fame has made him both a symbol of The Walt Disney Company and as of the United States itself. For this reason Mickey has been used frequently in anti-American satire, such as the infamous underground cartoon Mickey Mouse in Vietnam. There have been numerous parodies of Mickey Mouse, such as the Mad Magazine parody "Mickey Rodent" by Will Elder in which the mouse walks around unshaven and jails Donald Duck out of jealousy over the duck's larger popularity. (http://johnglenntaylor.blogspot.com/2008_12_28_archive.html) The grotesque Rat Fink character was created by Ed "Big Daddy" Roth over his hatred of Mickey Mouse. In The Simpsons Movie, Bart Simpson puts a black bra on his head to mimic Mickey Mouse and says: "I'm the mascot of an evil corporation!".[42]. In the South Park episode The Ring Mickey Mouse is depicted as the sadistic, greedy boss of The Walt Disney Company, only interested in money.

On September 20, 2008 Sheikh Muhammad Al-Munajid claimed that the sharia considers mice to be harmful vermin and that characters like Mickey Mouse and Jerry from Tom & Jerry are to be blamed for making mice such loveable characters. He issued a fatwa against Mickey, which made international headline news and was the subject of much controversy and ridicule. Sheikh Muhammed Al-Munajid issued a statement afterwards in which he stated that he was misquoted and translated badly.

Filmography
Main articles: List of Mickey Mouse cartoons and List of Mickey Mouse films and appearances

See also
Minnie Mouse, best known as the fellow Disney character, often portrayed as Mickey's significant other in animated shorts and features.
Pluto, a canine character of the Disney series who is often portrayed as Mickey's dog in the animated shorts and features.
Mickey Mouse universe, the phenomenon that has spawned from the Mickey Mouse series and other related characters.
Mouse Museum, a Russian museum featuring artifacts and memorabilia relating to Mickey Mouse.
Mickey Mouse Adventures A short-lived comic starring Mickey Mouse as the protagonist.
Hidden Mickey, a phenomenon featuring throughout Disney films, theme parks and merchandise involving hiding images that are similar to a silhouette of Mickey's head and ears, another trademark of the Disney series, in non-related places.
Celebration Mickey, a two foot tall, 100 lb (45 kg)., 24-karat gold authentic Mickey Mouse sculpture, designed by Disney artist Marc Delle and produced in 2001 to commemorate Walt Disney's 100th birthday. Certified an authentic and one-of-a-kind piece by Disneyland Resort, it is the largest gold sculpture ever cast in the history of the Disney Company.

References
^ Kenworthy, John The Hand Behind the Mouse, Disney Editions: New York, 2001. p.54.
^ "Disney Online Guest Services". Disney Online. http://psc.disney.go.com/guestservices/8699.html. Retrieved on 2006-08-31.
^ Michael Barrier, The Animated Man: A Life of Walt Disney, University of California Press, 2008, p. 56. ISBN 978-0520256194.
^ Kenworthy, John The Hand Behind the Mouse, Disney Editions: New York, 2001. p. 53.
^ Kenworthy, John The Hand Behind the Mouse, Disney Editions: New York, 2001. p. 54
^ Mickey Mouse's Magic- Tweentimes - Indiatimes
^ » Mickey Mouse was going to be Mortimer Mo ... Useless Knowledge
^ Albin, Kira. Mickey Rooney: Hollywood, Religion and His Latest Show. GrandTimes.com Senior Magazine. 1995.
^ justdisney.com
^ toontracker.com
^ Felix the Cat | St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture |
^ Disney Timeline: A mouse is born!!
^ a b Korkis, Jim. "The Uncensored Mouse".
^ a b c Charles Solomon. "The Golden Age of Mickey Mouse". Disney.com guest services. http://disney.go.com/disneyato...goldenage/index.html.
^ Chronology of the Walt Disney Company (1935)
^ GAC Forums - Popeye's Popularity - Article from 1935
^ The Golden Age of Mickey Mouse
^ http://www.bcdb.com/bcdb/cartoon.cgi?film=15&m=r
^ Charles Solomon. "Mickey in the Post-War Era". Disney.com guest services. http://disney.go.com/disneyato...sepostwar/index.html.
^ Craig Bellamy, Gordon Chisholm, Hilary Eriksen (17 February 2006). "Moomba: A festival for the people (pp 17-22)" (PDF). http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.a...ry%20of%20Moomba.pdf.
^ Craig Bellamy, Gordon Chisholm, Hilary Eriksen (17 February 2006). "Moomba: A fes

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Grendizer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For titular mecha, see Grendizer (mecha).
UFO Robot Grendizer

UFOロボグレンダイザー
(UFO Robo Gurendaizā)
Genre Mecha
Manga
Author Go Nagai
Publisher Kodansha
[show]Other publishers:
Rippu Shobo
Daitosha
ebookjapan
Freeman Holdings Ltd.
Dynamic Italia
Daran

Demographic Shōnen
Magazine TV Magazine
Original run October 1975 (1975-10) – May 1976 (1976-05)
Volumes 2*
Notes
*While the first two tankōbon publications consist of two volumes, only the first volume contains the manga done by Nagai. The other parts are done by Gosaku Ota and Ken Ishikawa. Ishikawa's manga consists of a manga version of the movie Grendizer tai Great Mazinger and has been included in all republications of Nagai's version.

Manga
Author Go Nagai
Illustrator Yu Okazaki*
Publisher Kodansha
Demographic Shōnen
Magazine TV Magazine
Original run June 1976 (1976-06) – March 1977 (1977-03)
Notes
*The version of Yu Okazaki is part of the same serialization of the one done by Nagai. It, however, has never appeared in tankōbon format. Only the part of Go Nagai has been compiled in tankōbon.

Manga
Author Go Nagai
Illustrator Gosaku Ota
Publisher Akita Shoten / Kodansha
[show]Other publishers:
Asahi Sonorama
Futabasha
Dynamic Europa
d/visual

Magazine Boken Oh / Otomodachi
Original run October 1975 (1975-10) – March 1977 (1977-03)
Volumes 5
Manga
Author Go Nagai
Illustrator Eiji Imamichi
Publisher Tokuma Shoten
Demographic Kodomo
Magazine TV Land
Original run October 1975 (1975-10) – March 1977 (1977-03)
Volumes 1
TV anime
Director Tomoharu Katsumata
Studio Toei Doga / Dynamic Planning
Network Fuji TV
English network Syndicated (Jim Terry Productions)
TVA
[show]Other networks:
Antenne 2
M6
TF1
Rete Due
CTS(1987)
The Big Channel
Telecinco
Canal Sur (1990)
Spacetoon
2×2

Original run October 5, 1975 (1975-10-05) – February 27, 1977 (1977-02-27)
Episodes 74
Anime film
Director Yoichi Kominato
Producer Masahisa Saeki
Writer Shozo Uehara
Composer Shunsuke Kikuchi
Studio Toei Doga
Released 1975-12-20
Runtime 24 minutes
Anime film
UFO Robot Grendizer: Akai Yuuhi no Taiketsu
Director Tokiji Kaburagi
Producer Chiaki Imada
Writer Tatsuo Tamura
Composer Shunsuke Kikuchi
Studio Toei Doga
Released 1976-12-19
Runtime 24 minutes
Notes
The two films are regular episodes of the TV series shown as short films in theaters.

Anime and Manga Portal
UFO Robot Grendizer (UFOロボ·グレンダイザー, UFO Robo Gurendaizā?, sometimes romanized as UFO Robo Grendizer) is a super robot TV anime and manga created by manga artist Go Nagai. It was broadcast on Japanese television from October 5, 1975, to February 27, 1977, and lasted 74 episodes.[1][2] The robot's first appearance in the United States was as a part of the Shogun Warriors line of super robot toys imported in the late 1970s by Mattel, then in Jim Terry's Force Five series, both under the title Grandizer. It was especially popular in continental Europe.

Contents [hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
3 DVD releases
4 Production information & staff
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

[edit] Plot
The Vega homeworld has become unstable due to the exploiting of Vegatron, a powerful radioactive ore. Seeking to expand his militaristic empire and find a substitute planet to settle upon, the ruthless King Vega unleashes his armies — composed of flying saucers and giant robotic monsters — and turns first against neighbors such as Fleed, a highly advanced but peaceful world. In a tragically ironic twist, the invaders' blitzkrieg turns against them: the once verdant, idyllic Fleed is turned into a radioactive wasteland. Too late, the only known survivor of the royal family, Prince Duke Fleed, manages to steal the Grendizer, the robotic embodiment of the Fleedian God of War, from the Vegan invaders who plan to use it to spearhead their invasion fleet. Grendizer is a giant robot that interfaces with Spazer, a flying saucer that enables the robot to fly.

Fleeing Vegan space by flying at faster than light speed, Duke enters our solar system and switches course to Earth, making a rough landing in Japan, on the slopes of Mount Fuji. He is befriended by Doctor Umon, a noted scientist who oversees a research laboratory called the Space Science Lab near a small ranch. The kindly Umon takes in the young humanoid alien as his son, under the assumed name of Daisuke, and assists him in hiding Grendizer. Taking the name Daisuke Umon, Duke Fleed works at the ranch run by Danbei Makiba (based on Abashiri Daemon of Go Nagai's manga Abashiri Ikka).

Roughly two years later, Kouji Kabuto returns to Japan after studying abroad in a flying saucer he personally designed and built (called the TFO). He heads to the Space Science Lab after hearing of multiple sightings of "flying saucers". He plans to contact the aliens if possible and make peace with them. Daisuke, however, scoffs at the notion and fears that these aliens, the Vegans, led by generals Blaki and Gandal, are preparing to attack Earth. Kouji ignores his warnings and flies out to meet the incoming saucers, only to discover the horrible truth. In order to save Kouji and protect his adoptive homeworld from destruction, Daisuke is forced to return to his true identity as Duke Fleed. He unearths Grendizer from its hiding place under the lab and sets off to fight his enemies.

The Vegans establish a base on the dark side of the moon and start to attack Earth from there. Kouji discovers Duke Fleed’s true identity and their bitter rivalry soon turns to friendship. The daughter of Danbei Makiba, Hikaru, also discovers Daisuke’s secret and becomes a pilot in order to assist him despite his objections. Later on, it is revealed that there were two more survivors from planet Fleed: Duke’s younger sister Maria Grace Fleed and a man who had rescued her and fled to Earth, raising her under the guise of her grandfather. Caught in a crossfire between Grendizer and a Vegan beast, he reveals to Maria that she is the last survivor of the royal family of Fleed (under the belief that Duke was killed) before dying from his wounds. Maria swears revenge on Grendizer and its pilot. She tries to ambush Duke, Kouji and Hikaru at the Space Science Lab, but the fight is short lived. Maria’s attacks brings Duke’s necklace (which is the same as the one she wore) into view and the truth is revealed. The lost siblings are reunited at last and Maria becomes the last addition to the team.

As the conflict nears the end, it is shown that Duke Fleed was engaged to King Vega’s daughter, Princess Rubina, prior to the attack on Fleed. When Rubina discovers that planet Fleed is no longer polluted with Vegatron radiation and that her fiancé is alive and well, she rushes to Earth to bring him the good news. Unfortunately, one of King Vega’s generals uses this opportunity to ambush Duke Fleed, and Rubina is killed when she takes a shot aimed at Duke. This makes Duke even more determined to wipe out the Vegan menace once and for all.

King Vega decides to gather his remaining forces and make an all-out attack on Earth, destroying the Moon Base to coax his troops into fighting to the end and finally succeed in invading Earth and taking it as their new home planet. Duke and company go out to intercept them in Grendizer and the newly-designed space combat Spazers. After a fierce battle, they finally manage to destroy the Vegan mothership along with King Vega himself. Soon afterwards, Duke and Maria bid a tearful farewell to Earth and their friends and return to help reconstruct planet Fleed.

[edit] Production
See also: Uchu Enban Daisenso
The original concept was shown in a 1975 30-minute pilot movie War of the Flying Saucers. The movie had the same basic plot, with a few changes: Daisuke appears as the Professor's biological son, the enemy was Princess Teronna from Planet Yarban, and the robot's original name was Gattaiger (gattai is Japanese for "combine"). The series, which started later the same year, is considered another sequel to the Mazinger series, partly because of the inclusion of Mazinger Z's pilot Koji Kabuto, and having giant robots, which made it a "Super Robot" mecha anime.

The Grendizer robot and Daisuke have been included in two short Go Nagai cross-over features: UFO Robot Grendizer vs. Great Mazinger, and Great Mazinger, Grendizer, Getter Robot G: Decisive Showdown! Great Sea Beast., in which the various super-robots combine forces to take on a seemingly indestructible beast which emerges from the sea and proceeds to destroy Tokyo — even Boss Borot makes an appearance.

Grendizer is best remembered as one of the first anime shows to have a huge success in central Europe and Canada, particularly in France and Quebec (titled Goldorak), Italy and Malta (titled Goldrake), where it holds a strong following even today. Grendizer was also one of the most popular anime series ever shown in Arabic countries. Grandizer is also popular in Russia.

The French version of the show has the characters named after stars, planets and galaxies: Duke Fleed becomes Actarus (from the star Arcturus), as both his alien and Earth name; Kouji Kabuto is Alcor, Doctor Umon is Professeur Procyon etc. The Italian version, witch use the french adaptation, use quite all the same name.

Although set in Japan, which can be seen from the air on several occasion, the series was given an American Western feel by including a ranch where Duke Fleed and Kouji Kabuto would work in their spare time. The ranch owner, Danbei Makiba, and his children would dress in cowboy/girl outfits (though they also appeared in traditional Japanese clothes on occasion) and even had a neighbour who wore a Mexican sombrero. In spite of this the series was not a success in the US. Only twenty-six episodes of Grendizer were shown on American TV as part of the multi-mecha show Force Five, out of the total of 74 in the original series. Many character's names were changed: Grendizer spelling was changed to Grandizer; Duke Fleed was Orion Quest, and his alias was Johnny Bryant; Planet Fleed's name was changed to Antares, and so on. This corresponds to the first season and story arc (ending with the death of one of the main villains, who is replaced afterwards). Although Mazinger Z was later imported to the United States, Kouji's character appearing in both Tranzor Z and Grandizer was not acknowledged.

[edit] DVD releases
The licensed dubbed version for some French-speaking countries was officially announced in 2006. In 2005, a major crisis led Toei to take legal actions against DVD customers, all French megastores, and two major French anime publishers in France, Belgium, Switzerland and Luxembourg. The crisis started with the official release of unlicensed Goldorak DVD by Manga Distribution and Déclic Image websites and on Ebay. By November 28 2005 the Manga Distribution and Déclic Images publishers were sentenced to pay €7,200,000 to Toei and Dynamic Planning for selling unlicensed DVD boxset.[3][4]

[edit] Production information & staff
Episodes: 74
Airtime: Sunday, 19:00 - 19:30
Network: Fuji TV
Production: Toei Doga
Original: Go Nagai, Dynamic Production
Producer: Masahisa Saeki
Planning: Higashi Kasuga, Mineo Kachita, Koji Bessho
Series director: Tomoharu Katsumata
Episode director: Tomoharu Katsumata, Yoichi Kominato, Yasuo Yamayoshi, Tsunekiyo Otani, Hidenori Yamaguchi, Kazukiyo Shigeno, Yoshikatsu Kasai, Takenori Kawada, Masamune Ochiai, Hiroshi ****ara, Kazuya Miyazaki, Johei Matsuura, Osamu Kasai, Tokiji Kaburaki, Kozo Mori****a, Masayuki Akehi, Kazumi Fukushima
Character design: Kazuo Komatsubara
Art designer: Tadanao Tsuji, Iwamitsu Ito
Music: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Lyrics: Kogo Hotomi
Theme song performance: Isao Sasaki
Opening Theme: "Tobe! Grendizer" (とべ!グレンダイザー, Tobe! Gurendaizā?, translated as "Fly! Grendizer") by Isao Sasaki, Columbia Yurikago-kai and Koorogi '73
Ending Theme: "Uchuu no Yuusha Grendizer" (宇宙の勇者グレンダイザー, Uchū no Yūsha Gurendaizā?, translated as "Grendizer, hero of the space") by Isao Sasaki
Cast: Kei Tomiyama (Daisuke Umon / Duke Fleed), Hiroya Ishimaru (Koji Kabuto), Kosei Tomita (Danbei Makiba), Joji Yanami (Dr. Genzo Umon / Emperor Vega), Kazuko Sawada (Goro Makiba), Chiyoko Kawashima (Hikaru Makiba), Kenichi Ogata (Banta Arano / Blacky), Rihoko Yoshida (Grace Maria Fleed), Kazuko Sawada (Lady Gandal), Kazuko Sugiyama (Naida), Noriko Ohara (Rubina), Ryoichi Tanaka (Zuril Jr), Keiichi Noda (Captain Gorman), Nobuyo Tsuda (Hara Arano), Hiroshi Otake (Boss)
Source(s)[1][2][5][6][7][8]

[edit] See also
UFO Robot Grendizer tai Great Mazinger
Grendizer, Getter Robot G, Great Mazinger: Kessen! Daikaijuu

[edit] References
^ a b "UFO Robot Grendizer - Toei Animation" (in Japanese). Japan: Toei Animation. http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/lineup/tv/grendaizer/. Retrieved on 2009-05-18.
^ a b "UFO Robot Grendizer (1975's anime TV series) - animemorial.net". animemorial. http://www.animemorial.net/en/185-UFO-Robot-Grendizer. Retrieved on 2009-05-18.
^ "Toei Animation And Dynamic Planning Wins!!". Toei Animation. 2005-11-28. http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/eng...press_goldorak7.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-15.
^ "Goldorak DVD Animation Box". Toei Animation. http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/eng...press_goldorak4.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-15.
^ "UFO Robo Grendizer (TV) - Anime News Network". USA: Anime News Network. http://www.animenewsnetwork.co...ia/anime.php?id=1198. Retrieved on 2009-05-22.
^ "UFO Robot Grendizer - allcinema" (in Japanese). Japan: Stingray. http://www.allcinema.net/prog/show_c.php?num_c=89517. Retrieved on 2009-05-22.
^ "Goldrake credits - Enciclo'Robopedia" (in Italian). Italy: Enciclo'Robopedia. http://www.encirobot.com/gold/gold-cred.asp. Retrieved on 2009-05-22.
^ "Goldrake, I Doppiatori della serie Giapponese - Enciclo'Robopedia" (in Italian). Italy: Enciclo'Robopedia. http://www.encirobot.com/gold/...dop.asp?criterio=jap. Retrieved on 2009-05-22.

[edit] External links
UFO Robot Grendizer (Japanese) at Toei Animation website
UFO Robot Grendizer at Toei's corporative website
UFO Robo Grendizer (anime) at Anime News Network's Encyclopedia
UFO Robot Grendizer (Japanese) at The World of Go Nagai webpage
Goldrake - Atlas UFO Robot (Italian) at the Enciclo'Robopedia website
UFO Robot Grendizer (Japanese) at Animemorial
UFO Robot Grendizer (animated film) (Japanese) at Animemorial
UFO Robo Grendizer (movie) (anime) at Anime News Network's Encyclopedia
UFO Robot Grendizer: Akai Yuuhi no Taiketsu (animated film) (Japanese) at Animemorial
UFO Robot Grendizer: Akai Yuuhi no Taiketsu (animated film) (Japanese) at allcinema
[show]v • d • eMazinger by Go Nagai

Franchise Mazinger Z (episodes) • Great Mazinger • Grendizer • God Mazinger • Mazinger U.S.A. Version • MazinSaga • Z Mazinger • Mazinger Angels • Shin Mazinger Shougeki! Z Hen • Mazinkaiser • Mazinger Z Vs. Devilman • Mazinger Z Vs. The Great General of Darkness • Great Mazinger tai Getter Robot • Great Mazinger tai Getter Robot G: Kuchu Daigekitotsu • UFO Robot Grendizer tai Great Mazinger • Grendizer, Getter Robot G, Great Mazinger: Kessen! Daikaijuu

Characters

Mecha Mazingers Mazinger Z • Great Mazinger • Mazinkaiser • Grendizer

Female mecha Aphrodite A • Diana A • Venus A • Minerva X

Other robots Boss Borot • Robot Junior • Million Alpha, Baion Beta, Daion Gamma

Evil mecha Mechanical Beasts • Warrior Beasts

Mazinger Z Koji Kabuto • Sayaka Yumi • Boss • Dr. Hell • Baron Ashura • Count Brocken • Viscount Pygman • Archduke Gorgon

Great Mazinger Jun Hono • Mikene Empire • Great General of Darkness • Minister Argos • Archduke Gorgon • Marquis Yanus • General Julicaesar • General Scarabeth • General Angoras • General Ligern • General Hadias

Grendizer Duke Fleed • King Vega • Gandal & Lady Gandal • Blaki • Zuril

Shin Mazinger Shougeki! Z Hen Tsubasa Nishikiori

Concepts/Related Fortresses • Mazinger Toy Lines • Super Robot Wars

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grendizer"
Categories: Manga series | Anime series | Anime films | Mecha anime and manga | Shunsuke Kikuchi | Super Robots | Anime of 1975 | Anime of 1976 | Anime featured in the Super Robot Wars series | Manga of 1975
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Tom and Jerry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the cat and mouse duo. For other uses, see Tom and Jerry (disambiguation).
Tom and Jerry

Tom and Jerry title card used in the early 1950s, and some reissues of 1940s shorts. A modified version of this card was used on the CinemaScope releases in 1954 and 1955.
Directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera
Produced by Rudolf Ising
(first short)
Fred Quimby
(95 shorts)
William Hanna and Joseph Barbera
(18 shorts)
Written by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera
Music by Scott Bradley
(113 shorts)
Edward Plumb
(73rd short)
Distributed by MGM Cartoon studio
Release date(s) 1940 - 1958
(114 shorts)
Running time approx. 6 to 10 minutes (per short)
Country United States
Language English
Budget approx. US$ 30,000.00 to US$ 75,000.00 (per short)
Tom and Jerry is a series of animated theatrical shorts created by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer that centered on a never-ending rivalry between a housecat (Tom) and a mouse (Jerry) whose chases and battles often involved comic violence. Hanna and Barbera ultimately wrote and directed one hundred and fourteen Tom and Jerry cartoons at the MGM cartoon studio in Hollywood, California between 1940 and 1957, when the animation unit was closed. The original series is notable for having won the Academy Awards for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) seven times, tying it with Walt Disney's Silly Symphonies as the theatrical animated series with the most Oscars.

Beginning in 1960, in addition to the originals MGM had new shorts produced by Rembrandt Films, led by Gene Deitch in Eastern Europe. Production of Tom and Jerry shorts returned to Hollywood under Chuck Jones's Sib-Tower 12 Productions in 1963; this series lasted until 1967, making it a total of 161 shorts. The cat and mouse stars later resurfaced in television cartoons produced by Hanna-Barbera and Filmation Studios during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, a feature film, Tom and Jerry: The Movie, in 1992 and released domestically in 1993 and in 2000, their first made-for TV short, Tom and Jerry: The Mansion Cat for Cartoon Network. The most recent Tom and Jerry theatrical short, The KarateGuard, was written and co-directed by co-creator Joe Barbera and debuted in Los Angeles cinemas on September 27, 2005.

Today, Time Warner (via its Turner Entertainment division) owns the rights to Tom and Jerry (with Warner Bros. handling distribution). Since the merger, Turner has produced the series, Tom and Jerry Tales for The CW's Saturday morning "The CW4Kids" lineup, as well as the recent Tom and Jerry short, The KarateGuard, in 2005 and a string of Tom and Jerry direct-to-video films - all in collaboration with Warner Bros. Animation.

There are a total of 162 theatrical shorts starring Tom and Jerry. For a list of all the Tom and Jerry theatrical shorts, see list of Tom and Jerry cartoons. For a list of all the Tom and Jerry Tales episodes, see list of Tom and Jerry Tales episodes.

Contents [hide]
1 Plot and format
2 Characters
2.1 Main Characters
2.1.1 Tom
2.1.2 Jerry
2.2 Recurring characters
2.2.1 Spike and Tyke
2.2.2 Butch and Toodles Galore
2.2.3 Mammy Two Shoes
2.2.4 Tuffy, formerly Nibbles
2.2.5 Quacker
3 History and evolution
3.1 Hanna-Barbera era (1940 – 1958)
3.2 Gene Deitch era (1960 – 1962)
3.3 Chuck Jones era (1963 – 1967)
3.4 Tom and Jerry hit television
3.5 Tom and Jerry's new owners
3.6 Tom and Jerry outside the United States
3.7 Controversy
4 Later shows, specials and shorts
5 Reception
6 Feature films
7 Other formats
8 Cultural influences
9 Tom and Jerry on DVD
10 Filmography
10.1 Notable shorts
10.2 Television shows
10.3 Packaged shows and programming blocks
10.4 Television specials
10.5 Theatrical films
10.6 Direct-to-video films
11 See also
12 References
13 Notes

[edit] Plot and format
The plots of each short usually center on Tom's numerous attempts to capture Jerry and the mayhem and destruction that ensues. Since Tom rarely attempts to eat Jerry and because the pair actually seem to get along in some cartoon shorts, it is unclear why Tom chases Jerry so much. Some reasons given may include normal feline/murine enmity, duty according to his owner, Jerry's attempt at ruining a task that Tom is entrusted with, Jerry eating Tom's master's food which Tom has been entrusted with safeguarding, revenge, Jerry saving other potential prey (such as ducks, canaries, or goldfish) from being eaten by Tom or competition with another cat, and attempts to seduce feline femme fatales, among other reasons.

The second Tom and Jerry title card, which was used from 1943 to 1944. These cards are no longer seen on re-issue prints or re-runs.Tom rarely succeeds in catching Jerry, mainly because of Jerry's cleverness, cunning abilities, and luck. Interestingly enough, many of the title cards show Tom and Jerry smiling at each other which seems to depict a love-hate relationship rather than the extreme annoyance each displays towards the other in each cartoon. There are also several instances within the cartoons where they display genuine friendship ("Springtime for Thomas") and concern for each other's well-being (such as in "Jerry and the Lion" where Jerry in one instance tricks Tom into thinking he has shot Jerry, and Tom comes running with the first aid kit).

Tom and Jerry title card used in the early 1950s, and some reissues of 1940s shorts. A modified version of this card was used on the CinemaScope releases in 1954 and 1955.The short episodes are famous for some of the most violent gags ever devised in theatrical animation: Jerry slicing Tom in half, shutting his head in a window or a door, Tom using everything from axes, pistols, explosives, traps and poison to try to murder Jerry, Jerry stuffing Tom's tail in a waffle iron (and also into what it seems as an old washing machine once), kicking him into a refrigerator, plugging his tail into an electric socket, pounding him with a mace, club or mallet, causing a tree or an electric pole to drive him into the ground, sticking matches into his feet and lighting them, and so on.[1] Despite all its popularity, Tom and Jerry has often been criticized as excessively violent.[2]:42[3]:134 Despite the frequent violence, there is no blood or gore in any scenes in the original cartoons that made the pair a household name. However, in a very rare instance, when Tom gets sliced into pieces in the opening credits of Tom and Jerry:The Movie, blood is clearly visible. A recurring gag involves Jerry hitting Tom when he's preoccupied, with Tom initially oblivious to the pain—and only feeling the effects moments later, and vice versa; and another involves Jerry stopping Tom in midchase (as if calling for a time-out), before he does something, usually putting the hurt on Tom.

Tom and Jerry title card used in 1956.The cartoon is also noteworthy for its reliance on stereotypes, such as the blackening of characters following explosions and the use of heavy and enlarged shadows (e.g., Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Mouse). Resemblance to everyday objects and occurrences is arguably the main appeal of visual humor in the series. The characters themselves regularly transform into ridiculous but strongly associative shapes, most of the time involuntarily, in masked but gruesome ways.

The final Tom and Jerry title card used in 1956 until the final Hanna and Barbera short in 1958, all shorts with this title card had their soundtracks recorded in Perspecta, other Hanna-Barbera shorts are mono.Music plays a very important part in the shorts, emphasizing the action, filling in for traditional sound effects, and lending emotion to the scenes. Musical director Scott Bradley created complex scores that combined elements of j***, classical, and pop music; Bradley often reprised contemporary pop songs, as well as songs from MGM films, including The Wizard of Oz and Meet Me In St. Louis. Generally, there is little dialogue as Tom and Jerry almost never speak, however minor characters are not similarly limited. For example, the character Mammy Two Shoes has lines in every episode in which she appears except The Little Orphan. Most of the dialogue from Tom and Jerry are the high-pitched laughs and gasping screams, which may be provided by a horn or other musical instrument.

Before 1954, all Tom and Jerry cartoons were produced in the standard Academy ratio and format; from late 1954 to 1955, some of the output was dually produced in both Academy format and the widescreen CinemaScope process. From 1956 until the close of the MGM cartoon studio a year later, all Tom and Jerry cartoons were produced in CinemaScope, some even had their soundtracks recorded in Perspecta directional audio. The 1960s Gene Deitch and Chuck Jones shorts were all produced in Academy format, but with compositions that made them compatible to be matted to Academy widescreen format as well. All of the Hanna and Barbera cartoons were produced in three-strip Technicolor; the 1960s entries were done in Metrocolor.

[edit] Characters

[edit] Main Characters

Thomas "Tom" Cat.
[edit] Tom
Tom is a blue-grey tomcat, who lives a pampered life, while Jerry is a small brown house mouse who always lives in close proximity to him. "Tom" is a generic name for a male cat or tomcat (the Warner Bros. cartoon character Sylvester was originally called "Thomas"). Tom was originally called "Jasper" in the very first short, Puss Gets the Boot, while Jerry was named Jinx. Tom is very quick-tempered and thin-skinned, while Jerry is independent and opportunistic. Jerry also possesses surprising strength for his size, lifting items such as anvils with relative ease and withstanding considerable impacts with them. Despite being very energetic and determined, Tom is no match for Jerry's brains and wits. By the final "iris-out" or "fade-out" of each cartoon, Jerry usually emerges triumphant, while Tom is shown as the loser. However, other results may be reached; on rare occasions, Tom triumphs, usually when Jerry becomes the aggressor or when he crosses some sort of line (the best example of which occurs in The Million Dollar Cat where, after finding out that Tom's newly acquired wealth will be taken away if he harms any animal, including a mouse, he torments Tom until Tom finally loses his temper and attacks him). Sometimes, usually ironically, they both lose, usually when Jerry's last trap potentially backfires on him after it affects Tom (An example is in Chuck Jones' Filet Meow short where Jerry orders a shark to scare Tom away from eating a goldfish. Afterwards, the shark scares Jerry away as well) or when Jerry overlooks something at the end of the course. Sometimes, they both end up being friends (only for something to happen so that Tom will chase Jerry again). Both characters display sadistic tendencies, in that they are equally likely to take pleasure in tormenting each other. However, depending on the cartoon, whenever one character appears to be in mortal danger (in a dangerous situation or by a third party), the other will develop a conscience and save him. Sometimes, they bond over a mutual sentiment towards an unpleasant experience and their attacking each other is more play than serious attacks. Multiple shorts show the two getting along with minimal difficulty, and they are more than capable of working together when the situation calls for it, usually against a third party who manages to torture and humiliate them both. In one short, Tom first meets Meathead and he and the mangy mutt attempt to catch Jerry. But when Tom's devil forces him to hurt Meathead by beheading him, instead of beheading him, it causes a lump.

Despite five shorts ending with a depiction of Tom's apparent death, his demise is never permanent; he even reads about his own death in a flashback in Jerry's Diary. He appears to die in explosions in Mouse Trouble (after which he is seen in heaven) and in Yankee Doodle Mouse, while in The Two Mouseketeers he is guillotined offscreen.

[edit] Jerry

Jerry Mouse.Although many supporting and minor characters speak, Tom and Jerry rarely do so themselves. Tom, most famously, sings while wooing female cats; for example, Tom sings Louis Jordan's "Is You Is Or Is You Ain't My Baby" in the 1946 short Solid Serenade. In a couple of shorts, Tom, when romancing a female cat, woos her in a French-accented voice similar to that of screen actor Charles Boyer. Co-director William Hanna provided most of the squeaks, gasps, and other vocal effects for the pair, including the most famous sound effects from the series, Tom's leather-lunged scream (created by recording Hanna's scream and eliminating the beginning and ending of the recording, leaving only the strongest part of the scream on the soundtrack) and Jerry's nervous gulp. The only other reasonably common vocalization is made by Tom when some external reference claims a certain scenario or eventuality to be impossible, which inevitably, ironically happens to thwart Tom's plans - at which point, a bedraggled and battered Tom appears and says in a haunting, echoing voice "Don't you believe it!", a reference to some famous World War II propaganda shorts of the 1940s. In one episode, Tom hires a mouse exterminator who, after several failed attempts to dispatch Jerry, changes profession to Cat exterminator by crossing out the "Mouse" on his title and writing "Cat", resulting in Tom spelling out the word out loud before reluctantly pointing at himself. One short, 1956's Blue Cat Blues, is narrated by Jerry in voiceover (voiced by Paul Frees). Both Tom and Jerry speak more than once in the 1943 short The Lonesome Mouse. Tom and Jerry: The Movie is the first (and so far only) installment of the series where the famous cat-and-mouse duo regularly speak to both humans and other anthropomorphic animals; it is possible that Tom and Jerry do have full speech capabilities, but choose not to use them aside from a few short phrases, preferring to leave the talking to other characters.

[edit] Recurring characters

[edit] Spike and Tyke

Spike the bulldog and his son Tyke, in the 1951 Tom and Jerry short Slicked-up Pup.In his attempts to catch Jerry, Tom often has to deal with the intrusions of Butch, a scruffy black alley cat who wants to catch and eat Jerry, and Spike (sometimes billed as "Killer" or "Butch"), an angry, vicious guard bulldog who tries to attack Tom for bothering his son Tyke (sometimes called "Junior") while trying to get Jerry. Spike spoke often, using a voice and expressions (performed by Billy Bletcher and later Daws Butler) modeled after comedian Jimmy Durante. Spike's coat has altered throughout the years between grey and creamy pink. The addition of Spike's son Tyke in the late 1940s led to both a slight softening of Spike's character and a short-lived spin-off theatrical series (Spike and Tyke).

[edit] Butch and Toodles Galore

Butch and Toodles Galore, in the 1946 Tom and Jerry short Springtime for Thomas.Tom changes his love interest many times. The first love interest is Sheikie and speaks in a haughty tone in The Zoot Cat, and calls him "Tommy" in The Mouse Comes to Dinner. The second and most frequent love interest of Tom's is Toodles Galore, who never has any dialogue in Tom and Jerry cartoons.

[edit] Mammy Two Shoes

Mammy Two Shoes, the owner of Tom, who made many appearances in the 1940s and early 1950s Tom and Jerry shorts, as seen in 1947's Old Rockin' Chair Tom. Over the years, Tom and Jerry cartoons featuring Mammy have been edited, modified, or withheld from broadcast in various ways.From the beginning, Tom also has to deal with Mammy Two Shoes (voiced by Lillian Randolph), a stereotyped African-American domestic housemaid. In the earliest shorts, Mammy is depicted as the maid taking care of the often opulent home in which Tom and Jerry reside. Later Tom and Jerry shorts are set in what appears to be Mammy's own house. Her face is never seen (with the exception of 1950's Saturday Evening Puss, in which her face is very briefly seen as she runs towards the camera), and she usually wallops the cat with a broom when he misbehaves. When Mammy was not present, other humans would sometimes be seen, usually from the neck down as well. Mammy would appear in many cartoons until 1952's Push-Button Kitty. Later cartoons would instead show Tom and Jerry living with a 1950s Yuppie-style couple. Soon after, virtually all humans in the series had visible faces.

[edit] Tuffy, formerly Nibbles
Tuffy is a mouse who is close to Jerry. He sometimes poses as Jerry's nephew. In many episodes, Tuffy is seen eating a lot. In his first appearance, he was left on Jerry's doorstep, being abandoned by his parents because he eats too much. Tuffy appears frequently with Jerry. When he does, Tom enjoys chasing him as he does with Jerry. Strangely, in Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring, Tuffy, once again called Nibbles, is a random mouse in a pet shop that Jerry doesn't even know.

Nibbles, the little orphan mouse, later named "Tuffy".
[edit] Quacker

Quacker at the end of That's My Mommy.Another recurring character in the series was Quacker the duckling, who was later adapted into the Hanna-Barbera character Yakky Doodle. He appears in Little Quacker, The Duck Doctor, Just Ducky, Downhearted Duckling, Southbound Duckling, That's My Mommy, Happy Go Ducky and The Vanishing Duck. Quacker talks a lot compared to Tom and Jerry. In many episodes, he is the only one who speaks. In addition. Butch also appeared as one of Tom's pals or chums as in some cartoons, where Butch is leader of Tom's buddies, who are Meathead and Topsy. The last recurring character is a small unnamed green devil that looks like Tom but has the size of Jerry. He only appears in three episodes: Springtime for Thomas, Smitten Kitten, and Sufferin' Cats!. Whenever Tom falls in love with a female cat, the devil advises Jerry to try to break the two apart in Springtime for Thomas and Smitten Kitten. In Sufferin' Cats!, when Tom and Meathead plan to split Jerry in half with an axe, he advises Tom to instead behead Meathead and keep Jerry for himself.

[edit] History and evolution

[edit] Hanna-Barbera era (1940 – 1958)

Tom and Jerry creators/directors William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, with the seven Academy Awards for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) their Tom and Jerry shorts won.Willliam Hanna and Joseph Barbera were both part of the Rudolf Ising unit at the MGM cartoon studio in the late 1930s. Barbera, a storyman and character designer, was paired with Hanna, an experienced director, to start directing films for the Ising unit; the first of these was a cat-and-mouse cartoon called Puss Gets the Boot. Completed in late 1939, and released to theatres on February 10, 1940, Puss Gets The Boot centers on Jasper, a gray tabby cat trying to catch an unnamed rodent, but after accidentally breaking a houseplant and its stand, the African-American housemaid Mammy (Later Tom's owner) has threatened to throw Jasper out ("O-W-T, out!" [as Mammy spells it]) if he breaks one more thing in the house. Naturally, the mouse uses this to his advantage, and begins tossing wine glasses, ceramic plates, teapots, and any and everything fragile, so that Jasper will be thrown outside. Puss Gets The Boot was previewed and released without fanfare, and Hanna and Barbera went on to direct other (non-cat-and-mouse related) shorts. "After all," remarked many of the MGM staffers, "haven't there been enough cat-and-mouse cartoons already?"

A screenshot from 1940's Puss Gets the Boot, the first Tom and Jerry cartoon.The pessimistic attitude towards the cat and mouse duo changed when the cartoon became a favorite with theatre owners and with the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, which nominated the film for the Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons of 1941. It lost to another MGM cartoon, Rudolph Ising's The Milky Way.

Producer Fred Quimby, who ran the MGM animation studio, quickly pulled Hanna and Barbera off the other one-shot cartoons they were working on, and commissioned a series featuring the cat and mouse. Hanna and Barbera held an intra-studio contest to give the pair a new name by drawing suggested names out of a hat; animator John Carr won $50 with his suggestion of Tom and Jerry.[4] The Tom and Jerry series went into production with The Midnight Snack in 1941, and Hanna and Barbera rarely directed anything but the cat-and-mouse cartoons for the rest of their tenure at MGM.

Tom's physical appearance evolved significantly over the years. During the early 1940s, Tom had an excess of detail—shaggy fur, numerous facial wrinkles, and multiple eyebrow markings—all of which were streamlined into a more workable form by the end of the 1940s- and looked like a realistic cat; in addition from his quadrupedal beginnings Tom became increasingly, and eventually almost exclusively, bipedal. By contrast, Jerry's design remained essentially the same for the duration of the series. By the mid-1940s, the series had developed a quicker, more energetic (and violent) tone, due to the inspiration from the work of the colleague in the MGM cartoon studio, Tex Avery, who joined the studio in 1942.

Tom and Jerry in the 1946 Academy Award winning cartoon The Cat Concerto.Even though the theme of each short is virtually the same - cat chases mouse - Hanna and Barbera found endless variations on that theme. Barbera's storyboards and rough layouts and designs, combined with Hanna's timing, resulted in MGM's most popular and successful cartoon series. Thirteen entries in the Tom and Jerry series (including Puss Gets The Boot) were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons; seven of them went on to win the Academy Award, breaking the Disney studio's winning streak in that category. Tom and Jerry won more Academy Awards than any other character-based theatrical animated series.

A screenshot from 1958's Tot Watchers, the final of the 114 Hanna and Barbera Tom and Jerry cartoon.Tom and Jerry remained popular throughout their original theatrical run, even when the budgets began to tighten somewhat in the 1950s and the pace of the shorts slowed slightly. However, after television became popular in the 1950s, box office revenues decreased for theatrical films, and short subjects. At first, MGM combated this by going to all-CinemaScope production on the series. After MGM realized that their re-releases of the older shorts brought in just as much revenue as the new films, the studio executives decided, much to the surprise of the staff, to close the animation studio. The MGM cartoon studio was shut down in 1957, and the final of the 114 Hanna and Barbera Tom and Jerry shorts, Tot Watchers, was released on August 1, 1958. Hanna and Barbera established their own television animation studio, Hanna-Barbera Productions, in 1957, which went on to produce famous TV shows and movies.

[edit] Gene Deitch era (1960 – 1962)
Tom and Jerry

High Steaks, a 1961 Tom and Jerry short directed by Gene Deitch.
Directed by Gene Deitch
Produced by William L. Snyder
Written by Larz Bourne
Chris Jenkyns
Eli Bauer
Music by Steven Konichek
Release date(s) 1961 - 1962
(13 shorts)
Country United States
Czechoslovakia
Language English
In 1960, MGM decided to produce new Tom and Jerry shorts, and had producer William L. Snyder arrange with Czech-based animation director Gene Deitch and his studio, Rembrandt Films, to make the films overseas in Prague, Czechoslovakia. The Deitch/Snyder team turned out 13 shorts, many of which have a surrealistic quality.

Since the Deitch/Snyder team had seen only a handful of the original Tom and Jerry shorts, the resulting films were considered unusual, and, in many ways, bizarre. The characters' gestures were often performed at high speed, frequently causing heavy motion blur. As a result, the animation of the characters looked choppy and sickly. The soundtracks featured sparse music, spacey sound effects, dialogue that was mumbled rather than spoken, and heavy use of reverb. The first of the Gene Deitch shorts, Switchin' Kitten, contains an enormous amount of erratic graphical glitches, framerate errors and high-pitched, hypnotic music and sound effects that make the short almost unwatchable. These problems were never repaired, and it is widely considered today to be the absolute worst Tom and Jerry short.

Fans that typically rooted for Tom criticized Deitch's cartoons for having Tom never become a threat to Jerry. Most of the time, Tom only attempts to hurt him when he gets in his way. Tom's new owner, a corpulent white man, was also more graphically brutal in punishing Tom's mistakes as compared to Mammy Two-Shoes, such as beating and thrashing Tom repeatedly, searing his face with a grill and forcing Tom to drink an entire carbonated beverage. Surprisingly, the Gene Deitch Tom and Jerry cartoons are still rerun today on a semi-regular basis.

These shorts are among the few Tom and Jerry cartoons not to carry the "Made In Hollywood, U.S.A." phrase at the end. Due to Deitch's studio being behind the Iron Curtain, the production studio's location is omitted entirely on it.

The episodes created by Dietch have generally been less favorable by the general audience than the rest of the series, mainly because of the sloppy animation.

[edit] Chuck Jones era (1963 – 1967)
Tom and Jerry

The title card for the Chuck Jones-produced Tom and Jerry cartoons.
Directed by Chuck Jones
Maurice Noble
Ben Washam
Abe Levitow
Tom Ray
Jim Pabian
Produced by Chuck Jones
Walter Bien
Les Goldman
Earl Jonas
Written by Michael Maltese
Jim Pabian
Bob Ogle
John W. Dunn
Irv Spector
Music by Eugene Poddany
Carl Brandt
Dean Elliott
Distributed by MGM Animation/Visual Arts
(Sib Tower 12 Productions)
Release date(s) 1963 - 1967
(34 shorts)
Running time approx. 6 to 8 minutes (per short)
Country United States
Language English
Budget US$ 42000.00 (per short)
After the last of the Deitch cartoons were released, Jones, who had been fired from his thirty-plus year tenure at Warner Bros. Cartoons, started his own animation studio, Sib Tower 12 Productions, with partner Les Goldman. Beginning in 1963, Jones and Goldman went on to produce 34 more Tom and Jerry shorts, all of which carried Jones' distinctive style (and a slight psychedelic influence). However, despite being animated by essentially the same artists who worked with Jones at Warner's, these new shorts had varying degrees of critical success.

Jones had trouble adapting his style to Tom and Jerry's brand of humor, and a number of the cartoons favored poses, personality, and style over storyline. The characters underwent a slight change of appearance: Tom was given thicker, Boris Karloff-like eyebrows (resembling Jones' Grinch or Count Blood Count), a less complex look (including the color of his fur becoming gray), sharper ears, and furrier cheeks, while Jerry was given larger eyes and ears, a lighter brown color, and a sweeter, Porky Pig-like expression.

Haunted Mouse, a Tom and Jerry short directed by Chuck Jones in 1965.Some of Jones' Tom and Jerry cartoons are reminiscent of his work with Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, included the uses of blackout gags and gags involving characters falling from high places. Jones co-directed the majority of the shorts with layout artist Maurice Noble. The remaining shorts were directed by Abe Levitow and Ben Washam, with Tom Ray directing two shorts built around footage from earlier Tom and Jerry cartoons directed by Hanna and Barbera. Various vocal characteristics were made by Mel Blanc and June Foray. MGM finally ended production on Tom and Jerry in 1967, by which time Sib Tower 12 had become MGM Animation/Visual Arts, and Jones had moved on television specials and the feature film, The Phantom Tollbooth.

[edit] Tom and Jerry hit television

Mammy Two Shoes in Saturday Evening Puss was rotoscoped and replaced with a thin white woman in 1960's.Beginning in 1965, the Hanna and Barbera Tom and Jerry shows began to appear on television in heavily edited form: the Jones team was required to take the cartoons featuring Mammy (such as Saturday Evening Puss), rotoscope her out, and replace her with a thin white woman, with Lillian Randolph's original voice tracks replaced by June Foray. However, in local telecasts of the cartoons, and in the ones shown on Boomerang, Mammy, featured in the other shorts, could once again be seen, and more recently[year needed], with a new, less stereotypical black voice supplied, which is done by Thea Vidale[citation needed]. Much of the extreme violence in the cartoons were also edited out. Starting out on CBS' Saturday Morning schedule on September 25, 1965, Tom and Jerry moved to CBS Sundays two years later and remained there until September 17, 1972.

[edit] Tom and Jerry's new owners
In 1986, MGM was purchased by WTBS founder Ted Turner. Turner sold the company a short while later, but retained MGM's pre-1986 film library, thus Tom and Jerry became the property of Turner Entertainment (where the rights stand today via Warner Bros.), and have in subsequent years appeared on Turner-run stations, such as TBS, TNT, Cartoon Network, Boomerang, and Turner Classic Movies.

[edit] Tom and Jerry outside the United States
When shown on terrestrial television in the United Kingdom (from 1967 to 2000, usually on the BBC) Tom and Jerry cartoons were not cut for violence and Mammy was retained. As well as having regular slots, Tom and Jerry served the BBC in another way. When faced with disruption to the schedules (such as those occurring when live broadcasts overrun), the BBC would invariably turn to Tom and Jerry to fill any gaps, confident that it would retain much of an audience that might otherwise channel hop. This proved particularly helpful in 1993, when Noel's House Party had to be canceled due to an IRA bomb scare at BBC Television Centre - Tom and Jerry was shown instead, bridging the gap until the next programme. Recently, a mother has complained to OFCOM of the smoking scenes shown in the cartoons, since Tom often attempts to impress love interests with the habit, resulting in reports that the smoking scenes in Tom and Jerry films may be subject to censorship.[5]

Due to its lack of dialog, Tom and Jerry was easily translated into various foreign languages. Tom and Jerry began broadcast in Japan in 1964. A 2005 nationwide survey taken in Japan by TV Asahi, sampling age groups from teenagers to adults in their sixties, ranked Tom and Jerry #85 in a list of the top 100 "anime" of all time; while their web poll taken after the airing of the list ranked it at #58 - the only non-Japanese animation on the list, and beating anime classics like Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, A Little Princess Sara, and the ultra-classics Macross, Ghost in the Shell, and Rurouni Kenshin (it should be noted that in Japan, the word "anime" refers to all animation regardless of origin, not just Japanese animation).[6]

Tom and Jerry have long been popular in Germany. However, the cartoons are overdubbed with rhyming German language verse that describes what is happening onscreen and provides additional funny content. The different episodes are usually embedded in the episode Jerry's Diary (1949), in which Tom reads about past adventures.

In India, South East Asia, the Middle East, Pakistan, Argentina, Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, and other Latin American countries, even in the eastern Europe, such as Romania, Cartoon Network still airs Tom and Jerry cartoons everyday. In Russia, local channels also air the show in its daytime programming slot. Tom and Jerry was one of the few cartoons of western origin broadcast in Czechoslovakia (1988) before the fall of Communism in 1989.

[edit] Controversy

The scenes featuring Tom, Jerry or other characters in blackface are often edited. Screen capture from The Truce Hurts.Like a number of other animated cartoons in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, Tom and Jerry was not considered politically correct in later years. There were at least twenty-four cartoons that featured either racism or with characters shown in blackface following an explosion, which are subsequently cut when shown on television today, although The Yankee Doodle Mouse blackface gag as well as another blackface gag at the end of Safety Second remain intact, depending on the country. The black maid, Mammy Two Shoes, is often considered racist because she is depicted as a poor black woman who has a rodent problem. Her voice was redubbed by Turner in the mid-1990s in hopes of making the character sound less stereotypical; the resulting accent sounded more Irish. One cartoon in particular, His Mouse Friday, is often completely out of television rotation due to the cannibals being seen as racist stereotypes. If shown, the cannibals' dialogue is edited out, although their mouths can be seen moving.

In 2006, United Kingdom channel Boomerang made plans to edit Tom and Jerry cartoons being aired in the UK where the characters were seen to be smoking in a manner that was "condoned, acceptable or glamorised." This followed a complaint from a viewer that the cartoons were not appropriate for younger viewers, and a subsequent investigation by UK media watchdog OFCOM.[5] It has also taken the U.S. approach by editing out blackface gags, though this seems to be random as not all scenes of this type are cut.

[edit] Later shows, specials and shorts

The title card for Hanna-Barbera's 1975 series, The Tom & Jerry Show, produced for the ABC network.In 1975, Tom and Jerry were reunited with Hanna and Barbera, who produced new Tom and Jerry cartoons for Saturday mornings. These 48 seven-minute short cartoons were paired with The Great Grape Ape and Mumbly cartoons, to create The Tom and Jerry /Grape Ape Show, The Tom and Jerry/Grape Ape/Mumbly Show, and The Tom and Jerry/Mumbly Show, all of which ran on ABC Saturday Morning from September 6, 1975 to September 3, 1977. This is the first new Tom & Jerry cartoon series for TV in years afters the theatrical shorts shown on television. In these cartoons, Tom and Jerry (now with a red bow tie), who had been enemies during their formative years, became nonviolent pals who went on adventures together, as Hanna-Barbera had to meet the stringent rules against violence for children's TV. The Tom & Jerry Show is still airing on the Canadian channel, TELETOON, and its classical counterpart, TELETOON Retro.

Title card for Filmation's 1980 – 82 series, The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show, produced for the CBS network.Filmation Studios (in association with MGM Television) also tried their hands at producing a Tom and Jerry TV series. Their version, The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show, debuted in 1980, and also featured new cartoons starring Droopy, Spike (another bulldog created by Tex Avery), and Barney Bear, not seen since the original MGM shorts. The thirty Filmation Tom and Jerry cartoons were noticeably different from Hanna-Barbera's efforts, as they returned Tom and Jerry to the original chase formula, with a somewhat more "slapstick" humor format. This incarnation, much like the 1975 version, was not as well received by audiences as the originals, and lasted on CBS Saturday Morning from September 6, 1980 to September 4, 1982.

The logo for Hanna-Barbera's 1990 – 93 series Tom and Jerry Kids, produced for the Fox Kids network.One of the biggest trends for Saturday morning television in the 1980s and 1990s was the "babyfication" of older, classic cartoon stars, and on September 8, 1990, Tom and Jerry Kids, co-produced by Turner Entertainment and Hanna-Barbera Productions (which would be sold to Turner in 1991) debuted on FOX. It featured a youthful version of the famous cat-and-mouse duo chasing each other. As with the 1975 H-B series, Jerry wears his red bowtie, while Tom now wears a red cap. Spike and his son Tyke, and Droopy and his son Dripple, appeared in back-up segments for the show, which ran until October 2, 1993.

In 2000, a new television special entitled, Tom and Jerry: The Mansion Cat premiered on Cartoon Network. It featured Joe Barbera (who was also a creative consultant) as the voice of Tom's owner, whose face is never seen. In this cartoon, Jerry, housed in a habitrail, is as much of a house pet as Tom is, and their owner has to remind Tom to not "blame everything on the mouse".

In 2005, a new Tom and Jerry theatrical short, entitled The KarateGuard, which had been written and directed by Barbera and Spike Brandt, storyboarded by Joseph Barbera and Iwao Takamoto and produced by Joseph Barbera, Spike Brandt and Tony Cervone premiered in Los Angeles cinemas on September 27, 2005. As part of the celebration of Tom and Jerry's sixty-fifth anniversary, this marked Barbera's first return as a writer, director and storyboard artist on the series since his and Hanna's original MGM cartoon shorts. Director/animator, Spike Brandt was nominated for an Annie award for best character animation. The short debuted on Cartoon Network on January 27, 2006.

Title card for Warner Bros.' 2006 – 08 series, Tom and Jerry Tales.During the first half of 2006, a new series called Tom and Jerry Tales was produced at Warner Bros. Animation. Thirteen half-hour episodes (each consisting of three shorts) were produced, with only markets outside of the United States and United Kingdom signed up. The show then came to the UK in February 2006 on Boomerang, and it went to the U.S. on The CW4Kids on The CW.[7]. Tales is the first Tom and Jerry TV series that utilizes the original style of the classic shorts, along with the violence. This recently is the last Tom and Jerry-based cartoon show for television as the show ended on March 22, 2008.

[edit] Reception
In January 2009, IGN named Tom and Jerry as the 66th best in the Top 100 Animated TV Shows.[8]

In an interview found on the DVD releases, several MADtv cast members stated that Tom and Jerry is one of their biggest influences for slapstick comedy.

[edit] Feature films

Jerry and Gene Kelly in the 1945 musical film Anchors Aweigh.In 1945, Jerry made an appearance in the live-action MGM musical feature film Anchors Aweigh, in which, through the use of special effects, he performs a dance routine with Gene Kelly. In this sequence, Gene Kelly is telling a class of school kids a fictional tale of how he earned his Medal of Honor. Jerry is the king of a magical world populated with cartoon animals, whom he has forbidden to dance as he himself does not know how. Gene Kelly's character then comes along and guides Jerry through an elaborate dance routine, resulting in Jerry awarding him with a medal. Jerry speaks and sings in this short film; his voice is performed by Sara Berner. Tom has a cameo in the sequence as one of Jerry's servants.

Tom and Jerry and Esther Williams in the 1953 musical film Dangerous When Wet.Both Tom and Jerry appear with Esther Williams in a dream sequence in another big-screen musical, Dangerous When Wet. In the film, Tom and Jerry are chasing each other underwater, when they run into Esther Williams, with whom they perform an extended synchronized swimming routine. Tom and Jerry have to save Williams from a lecherous octopus, who tries to lure and woo her into (many of) his arms.

In 1988, the duo were lined-up to appear in the Oscar-winning Touchstone/Amblin Entertainment film, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, a homage to classic American animation, but their inclusion in the film was scrapped due to legal complications.[9]

1992 saw the first international release of Tom and Jerry: The Movie when the film was released overseas to theaters in Europe of that year and then domestically by Miramax Films in 1993. Joseph Barbera, co-creator of the characters served as creative consultant for the picture, which was produced and directed by Phil Roman. A musical film with a structure similar to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's blockbusters, The Wizard of Oz and Singin' in the Rain, the movie was criticized by reviewers and audiences alike for being predictable and for giving the pair dialogue (and songs) through the entire movie. As a result, it failed at the box office.

In 2001, Warner Bros. (which had, by then, merged with Turner and assumed its properties) released the duo's first direct-to-video movie, Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring, in which Tom covets a ring which grants mystical powers to the wearer, and has become accidentally stuck on Jerry's head. It would mark the last time both Hanna and Barbera co-produced a Tom and Jerry film, as William Hanna died shortly after The Magic Ring was released.

Four years later, Bill Kopp scripted and directed two more cat and mouse features for the studio, Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars and Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry, the latter one based on a story by Barbera. Both were released on DVD in 2005, marking the celebration of Tom and Jerry's 65th anniversary. In 2006, another direct-to-video film, Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers, tells the story about the pair having to work together to find the treasure. Joe came up with the storyline for the next feature, Tom and Jerry: A Nutcracker Tale, as well as the initial idea of synchronizing the on-screen actions to music from Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite. This DTV, directed by Spike Brandt and Tony Cervone, would be Joe Barbera's last Tom and Jerry project due to his passing in December 2006. The holiday-set animated film was released on DVD in late 2007, and dedicated to Barbera.

Warner Bros. has plans for a theatrically-released film starring Tom and Jerry. The film will be, according to Variety, "an origin story that reveals how Tom and Jerry first meet and form their rivalry before getting lost in Chicago and reluctantly working together during an arduous journey home". Dan Lin will produce the film.[10]

[edit] Other formats
Tom and Jerry began appearing in comic books in 1942, as one of the features in Our Gang Comics. In 1949, with MGM's live-action Our Gang shorts having ceased production five years earlier, the series was renamed Tom and Jerry Comics. The pair continued to appear in various books for the rest of the 20th century.[11]

The pair have also appeared in a number of video games as well, spanning titles for systems from the Nintendo Entertainment System and Super NES and Nintendo 64 to more recent entries for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Nintendo GameCube.

Main article: Tom and Jerry video games

[edit] Cultural influences
Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (June 2009)

Throughout the years, the term and title Tom and Jerry became practically synonymous with never-ending rivalry, as much as the related "cat and mouse fight" metaphor has. Yet in Tom and Jerry it wasn't the more powerful (Tom) that usually came out on top. Palestinian President Yassar Arafat noted this fact and loved the cartoon show because "the little guy--the mouse and not the cat--always won"[12]

The Simpsons characters, Itchy & Scratchy, of the eponymous cartoon on the Krusty the Clown Show, are spoofs of Tom and Jerry--a "cartoon within a cartoon."[1] The extreme cartoon violence of the Tom and Jerry is parodied and intensified, as Itchy (the mouse) dispatches Scratchy in various gratuitous, gory fashions. In the Simpsons episode, Itchy and Scratchy and Marge Marge gets violence banned from TV and Itchy and Scratchy became friends (their whacking intro is replaced by gift-exchanging), causing the downfall of the series. It was later changed back to the way it used to be because Marge decided that art shouldn't be censored because she didn't want Michelangelo's David's nudity to be covered up. The Simpsons also parodied the Gene Deitch era cartoons. In the episode Krusty Gets Kancelled, the Itchy & Scratchy characters are replaced with the badly drawn Worker & Parasite.

The duo are also parodied in the original Sally the Witch anime (1966), the Fairly Oddparents TV movie, Channel Chasers (2004), and two episodes of Garfield and Friends.

The Family Guy episode Road to Rupert also parodied the Gene Kelly dance where Stewie takes the place of Jerry in the sequence.

An episode[which?] of Disney's Kim Possible also featured a parody of Tom and Jerry called Scamper and Mr. Bitey.

Tom and Jerry were mentioned in Baby Mama when Angie (Amy Pohler) says, "We're partners like Tom And Jerry." Kate (Tina Fey) corrects her and says "Tom and Jerry hate each other."

On an episode of TNA iMPACT!, wrestler Abyss (Chris Parks) confessed his recent discovery, that Tom and Jerry were actually friends and were only playing.

Author Steven Millhauser wrote a short story called "Cat 'n' Mouse," which pits the duo against one another as antagonist and protagonist in literary form. Millhauser allows his reader access to the thoughts and emotions of the two characters in a way that wasn't done in the cartoon.

[edit] Tom and Jerry on DVD
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009)

There have been several Tom and Jerry DVDs released in Region 1 (the United States and Canada), including a series of two-disc sets known as the Tom and Jerry Spotlight Collection. There have been negative responses to Vol. 1 and Vol. 2, due to some of the cartoons included on each having cuts and redubbed Mammy Two-Shoes dialogue. A replacement program offering uncut versions of the shorts on DVD was later announced. There are also negative responses to Vol. 3, due to Mouse Cleaning and Casanova Cat being excluded from these sets and His Mouse Friday having an extreme zooming-in towards the end.

There have been two Tom and Jerry DVD sets in Region 2. In Western Europe, most of the Tom and Jerry shorts have been released (only two, The Million Dollar Cat and Busy Buddies, were not included) under the name Tom and Jerry - The Classic Collection. Almost all of the shorts contain re-dubbed Mammy Two-Shoes tracks. Despite these cuts, His Mouse Friday, the only Tom and Jerry cartoon to be completely taken off the airwaves in some countries due to racism, is included, unedited with the exception of extreme zooming-in towards the end to avoid showing a particularly racist caricature. These are regular TV prints sent from the U.S. in the 1990s. Shorts produced in CinemaScope are presented in pan and scan. Fortunately Mouse Cleaning and Casanova Cat are presented uncut on as part of these sets. Tom and Jerry - The Classic Collection is available in 6 double-sided DVDs (issued in the United Kingdom) and 12 single-layer DVDs (issued throughout Western Europe, including the United Kingdom).

Another Tom and Jerry Region 2 DVD set is available in Japan. As with Tom and Jerry - The Classic Collection in Western Europe, almost all of the shorts (including His Mouse Friday) contain cuts. Slicked-up Pup, Tom's Photo Finish, Busy Buddies, The Egg and Jerry, Tops with Pops and Feedin' the Kiddie are excluded from these sets. Shorts produced in CinemaScope are presented in pan and scan.

The Chuck Jones-era Tom and Jerry shorts were released in a two-disc set entitled Tom and Jerry: The Chuck Jones Collection on June 23, 2009.[13]

[edit] Filmography

[edit] Notable shorts
For a list of theatrical Tom & Jerry cartoon shorts, see List of Tom and Jerry cartoons.

The following cartoons won the Academy Award (Oscar) for Best Short Subject: Cartoons:[14]:32

1943: The Yankee Doodle Mouse
1944: Mouse Trouble
1945: Quiet Please!
1946: The Cat Concerto
1948: The Little Orphan
1951: The Two Mouseketeers
1952: Johann Mouse
These cartoons were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons, but did not win:

1940: Puss Gets the Boot
1941: The Night Before Christmas
1947: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Mouse
1949: Hatch Up Your Troubles
1950: Jerry's Cousin
1954: Touché, ***** Cat!
These cartoons were nominated for the Annie Award in the Individual Achievements Category: Character Animation, but did not win:

1946: Springtime for Thomas
1955: That's My Mommy
1956: Muscle Beach Tom
2005: The KarateGuard

[edit] Television shows
The Tom and Jerry Show (ABC, 1975)
The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show (CBS, 1980–1982)
Tom and Jerry Kids (FOX, 1990–1993)
Tom and Jerry Tales (The CW, 2006–2008)

[edit] Packaged shows and programming blocks
Tom and Jerry (CBS, Mid-1960s)
Tom and Jerry's Funhouse on TBS (TBS, 1

Posts: 4698 | Registered: 05-31-2007

Ignored post by mike_2007 posted

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Kollerkrot

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quote:
Originally posted by iperson:
This is My Special Comment

(thanks, Keith Olbermann)

This Special Comment is a result of months long investigative journalism. This is the story you've been hearing about on and off here on the board but which has been distorted and filled with lies, threats, distortion and manipulation. I will present only facts, nothing extraneous, the concise hard cold math, to put everything into perspective for you, for me, as well as for the sake of the people involved.

This is the Silence of Ilw Lambs.

In July/August 2007 "Wyatt" picks ProudUSC as his first victim, and invites her to a private PM. They talk for around ten months (till June 2008), at the beginning of which he tells her he's dying, having been diagnosed with a fatal illness and has two months left to live. He tells her that his wife had just left him, and he's had his heart broken, and is near suicide.
At about the same time (or a bit later), he opens a private PM and invites three women (Proud, Explora, and me), no men. The topic- US Constitution. He conducts the lectures in a cold impersonal manner, creating an aura of authority. Undaunted by his pending diagnosis, the lectures are precise, and rather serene and calm.
At around mid winter I drop all private PMs to concentrate on my life, and later also on following the presidential election, and have no private contact with anyone on the forum. There'd also been another private social thread, which is later joined by Sprintgirl, which I also drop.

In June/July 2008 Wyatt ends his secret affair with Proud, and switches to Sprint whom he also invites personally to a one on one PM. He tells her that he has the legal capacity to help her with her private legal problems. He also tells her that he has a fatal illness which leaves him several months left to live. He tells her that his wife just left him, and that he's near suicide (about a year after he had told the same thing to Proud).

Fearing that Proud, having fallen for him during this lengthy period of time, he tells Sprint he moved from Colorado to Wyoming where he bought a house, obviously trying to avoid any potential trouble. He begins taking on a different personality, from an immigration law expert to a cowboy who lives a lonely life on a farm with horses, and a herd of cows. Proud later tells me that she never heard a word about his cowboy lifestyle throughout the time they talked. His messenger id with Proud had been lawperson2008 (or something similiar), which he changes to cowman2008 when he talks to Sprint. He paints a bucolic picture of his life on the farm, juxtaposing it with harsh realities, financial problems, abject poverty and struggle. He makes up a whole story around his life, including his friends, some of which are modeled on real people who live in his real town in Colorado. He convinces her about the move to Wyoming by wearing a Wyoming printed sweatshirt. He convinces her of his supposed cowboy ways by playing country music, wearing a cowboy hat, and showing her cowboy paraphernalia which he sends to her as webcam pictures (available).

The "relationship" is in full swing (including a virtual marriage proposal to keep the woman's hopes up), when in September 2008 he sends me a private PM titled "a Note". But this is no ordinary contact that just happens on one day or another. While I am unaware of the real nature of his relationships with those two women, and his real intentions for the contact, he makes sure that neither Sprint nor Proud think he initiates the contact with me. So he orchestrates a lie and tells Sprint that I contacted him and confessed my feelings for him. Shortly after I receive a PM from Sprint in which she announces that she knows about my confession to Wyatt. I was surprised and confused but ignored this whole thing putting it on the casp of Sprint apparent irrational behavior on the forum (all the flirting with all the guys etc). He tells Sprint later that he ended the PM with me, but the truth is we start talking at the Red Universe site and later on yahoo messenger as well.

There, he tells me that his wife left him, and broke his heart, and at the same time he was diagnosed with a serious fatal illness. He also tells me that he requires a heart surgery and expensive drugs, but has no health insurance nor money to buy them. At some point he tells me he owns a lot of land, a mountain and a lake, and his house is fitted with solar panels and a satellite connection. Hmm.. He tells me virtually his whole life story, filled with some astonishing private details, about his parents and his sibling(s) [my version included a brother, Sprint's a brother and a sister, Proud's no siblings]. I found it all quite disturbing to hear from a person I barely knew, just mere few days of IM exchange. At some point he starts asking me about my financial situation. Some direct questions include what type of car I drive, where I live, whether I own a house or rent, what I do and where I work, etc. Later when I speak with Proud she tells me that he's also asked a lot about her financial situation and teased her she owned a convertible. This is what triggered my suspicions about a potential financial con scheme.

Now, during the short period of time we are in private contact- between middle of September till November the 5th, I admit to have fallen for the guy, because of the things he tells me. So naturally like every woman in this situation, I start to have feelings for him. I offer to fly to Wyoming, and comfort him in his possibly last days of his life ( I was later told he'd say yes to two women from either this or another internet board). I write for him sexually charged light core fantasies to relieve the pain he constantly complains about (he says on the scale of 1-10, his pain is usually 8-9). At times he asks me to use graphic language, which I refuse to do. He laughs at me.

When I later talk to both women, it is revealed that in both cases he asked for graphic language and the women are uncomfortable with it. Unlike with me, he initiates all cybersex with them.

I want him to give me his phone number so we can talk, but he says no saying that **** happens. He says he had something awful happen to him previously with a woman from Michigan and he has bad memories from that state... Hmm.. I give him my phone number but he gets angry (all capital letters indicate his anger) asking me what did I do that for. (to be honest, at that point I should have ended this online relationship immediately).

When I talk to Sprint later, it becomes obvious he avoids real contact and hides his true identity, refusing to talk on the phone. They mostly used skype which allows anonymous connection. The reasons for it are apparent now that I know he doesn't really live where he said he lived, and it gets even more apparent what his real intentions had been with all of us. Even though Sprint tells everyone she'd met him, this isn't true. She lies believing that I was obsessed with Houston - a result of:

The Manipulation

The common wisdom today at ilw is that I have pursued Houston. Nothing could be further from the truth. He appeared to be very intelligent and I liked what he was saying overall, and I was interested in a conversation, but that's the end of it. It was nice many times here at ilw that I have enjoyed the discussions, and contrary to what everyone believes, I like most of the people on this board (except for lately). What I don't like are some of their views, which I attacked, sometimes with more vigor than necessary. There were undoubtedly good times, but you see, perceptions can be skewed by repeated premeditated sound bites that eventually become common wisdom. What Houston kept repeating to Sprint and everyone else he spoke with was that I was a bad person. Yet, somehow the general perception persisted and I was blamed for everything that happened to Sprint later on and it lasts till today. The purpose of this deception? To distance me away from the other women, and everyone else. If you really look deeply into what I just said and understand the unscrupulous premeditation, it is chilling.

I understood the dynamics and the extent of the manipulation after what happened later when there was a clash between Proud and Sprint in October last year. What I was told in pieces (which I glued together myself) was that Sprint divulged a private secret about Wyatt's private life, and Proud used it to destroy her relationship with Wyatt by telling him about it. I remember it to this day. I was talking to him on messenger when there was a lengthy silence after which he said that Proud is a dangerous woman. He kept repeating this mantra of her being a dangerous person for the rest of the time we spoke. The manipulation.. If I believed that Proud was dangerous, he was assured I would not trust her word, and that was the sole purpose.

Today I also, along with Proud, and maybe a legion of other unidentified women, appear to wear the badge of the dangerous one, on top of being a criminal (the criminal mind as he calls his projection). I can only imagine the amount of manipulation that went into presenting me in the light everyone sees me today. The effects of it are known, and tangible. Here's another observation to make the point- after Houston gets confronted by Sprint later in the story, he says I did him a favor... and also when asked if he intended to continue a relationship with her, he said no, adding that she and Brit both have damaged him (transcript available- as petelichi).

The manipulation also entails assuming several identities under different messenger ids (sprintgirl2008, petelichi, cowman2008, lawperson2008 at least), and I also suspect several ilw ids. Each id represents a separate persona which he carefully constructs, building it up in time.

He uses those identities for his manipulation and deception, playing people against each other, and cross checking them. Trying to have Sprint report me to authorities is yet another chapter of his ongoing games ( something he's constantly accusing me of- this is a projection of his own behavior). What's the real reason behind it? The reason is I know it all about him.

Manipulation:
quote:
The problem is that we have no idea how good at manipulation some people are. They are so good at it, that when we find out how good they are, it blows our mind. How do they get so good at it?

Are these narcissists just brilliant, with astronomical IQs? Well, the more intelligent they are, the more dangerous they are, of course. But, no, they aren't all intelligent. They don't have to be.

It's just a simple matter of "practice makes perfect."

You too would be that good a manipulator if you practiced manipulating people 24-7-365 for a lifetime.

This is a quote from a website where you can learn more about such pathological behavior. Today in the United States there are more than 3 million sociopaths and you're bound to encounter at least a few of them during your lifetime.

There are many more detailsto this story that would need much more time and energy to go through, which I can't afford to waste for and the summer for something that has lost its meaning for me a long time ago. The whole story reared its ugly face all over again after I discovered that I've been investigated and stalked on my two websites since late April 2009, which revealed (IP addresses) and confirmed the truth- that the man in question does not in fact live in Wyoming, and most likely everything else he told is not true, including his name, the people in his stories, and the events he told. They don't require repeating, as they have been rendered meaningless by now. Today they stand in the very long row of lies and distortions. Funny, the word lie in the light of this story loses its meaning, dwarfed by the enormity of manipulation, distortion, and hurt heaped on unsuspecting souls, often finding themselves in dire life situations and needing help and kindness, instead being exploited in an unimaginably cruel manner.

According to this blog, abuse victims are easier targets for online predators because they first- are desperately seeking a good man to protect them, and two, they have a lower abuse threshold as they are used to controlling behavior and consider it more normal than a woman who's been in healthy relationships. It is much harder to help such a woman defend herself against a very intelligent, persuasive abuser. It is hard for her to see the facts in the proper light, and moreover, a mechanism exists, which I've witnessed in this story that causes her to turn against the person trying to help in order to reaffirm her imagined reality, and dispel all doubt, desperately trying to hold onto her dreams.

This is what happened after two weeks of my conversations with Sprint- she turned against me and accused me of trying to interfere in her relationship with Wyatt. All I've tried to do was to delicately loosen the knot and let her free of this fake filled with holes and sadness relationship. After all I've heard (a lot of details are missing in this short comment), it became obvious that the relationship was fake and abusive. In a way, one of the reasons I brought it all into light in January on the ilw board, was an attempt to destroy the cozy space within which the manipulation existed, to severe the friend support system for the relationship at ilw, and other or future potential stories like this one. This is why I am writing this right now as well. If anybody here is a true friend of Sprint, try to help instead of reinforcing this sick situation.

As for me, I admit I've made a few mistakes reacting emotionally and not having been more clever presenting this case, which ended up even distancing people, but I've made my homework and talked to people, and I know what I am saying after studying the facts, all the evidence, and having been a witness to several exchanges (transcripts available). Even though Proud will deny what I am saying, she knows I am telling the truth, and she privately agreed with me. What motivates a denial is often fear because all the women involved in the net of this man have revealed things that may be used against them later and be the source of blackmail. Because:

quote:
Once You Expose Them You Will Most Ccertainly Be Subject To Their Narcisstic Rage.

The Cyberpath Usually Does The Following (we also call it a 'pathological tantrum'):

- smear you to everyone they can, including making up whole websites just to smear you (Pathologicals believe, like small children, if they SAY something - long enough & loud enough that people will believe them and it will supplant facts and become truth.)

- minimize, whitewash or twist the truth about what happened between you to their friends, family, spouse, partners, co-workers, anyone who will listen (and accuse you of doing all the things they did to you - i.e. Projection)

- do everything they can to make YOU look like the sick, mentally ill or not credible person

- use their friends/ spouses in denial, other predators, coworkers, internet buddies to help them discredit and smear you or harm you physical and psychologically.

- They may post on boards you belong to or hack a website if you have one.

- They may hack your computer, your email and alter or delete files.

- Hire an attorney and give the attorney selective and or altered information to sue you for defamation, libel and/or slander.

(link above)

Conclusions

To scoop it all up. Ask yourself what possible reason could a man have to invite a few women and not include a single man to a private thread and lecture them on Constitution? A man who is not a friend, not even an acquaintance. Someone they've known absolutely nothing about.

He builds an authority, an aura of noble intentions. He builds a net. And then scoops up the remaining fish, and eats them up one after the next. He builds an authority on the entire board, giving sound and helpful advice. He argues intelligently and reasonably, and eventually he is the most trusted person on the board.

It takes time. He takes his time because he knows the awards will come later and they will be sweet. He uses multiple identities, different ids to check upon his victims, cross "interviews" them to make sure they are truthful at all times. He manipulates his victims, plays them against each other, and other people.

What is left after all this is scorched earth, humiliation, pain, sometimes destitution.

Further Reading:

Exposing Online Predators and Cyberpaths

Love Fraud

Victims- Get Professional Help

Reading all of this in detail, what pops into my head is: What is that you (IP) have, in which Houston could be so tremendously interested in?

Oh, and I didn't click on any of those links.

“...I may condemn what you say, but I will give my life for that you may say it”! - Voltaire

Posts: 2135 | Registered: 04-08-2006

Ignored post by Kollerkrot posted

Aroha

Power Member
Picture of Aroha

Posted

Awwww. Look. iP in LAPD clothes. Isn't it against the law to impersonate law enforcement?

I remember that US Constitution thread in PM. It didn't have only women in it, or just iP and Proud.

**************************************
The whole of life is but a moment of time. It is our duty, therefore to use it, not to misuse it - Plutarch

Posts: 1696 | Location: Las Vegas | Registered: 07-29-2007

Ignored post by Aroha posted